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THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


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EUGENE  I.  McCORMAC 


AMERICAN   HISTORY 


BOOKS  BY  J.  A.  JAMES,  PH.D. 
AND    A.    H.    SANFORD,   M.A. 

PUBLISHED  BY  CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


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George  Washington 
From  the  painting  by  Gilbert  Stuart.     Property  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art.     By  permission 


AMERICAN   HISTORY 


BY 

JAMES   ALTON   JAMES 

PROFESSOR  OF  HISTORY  IN  NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY 


ALBERT   HART   SANFORD 

PROFESSOR  OF  HISTORY  IN  THE  STEVENS  POINT,  WISCONSIN, 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


WITH   MANY 
ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  MAPS 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 
1909 


LIBRARY 
tfttTVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


.       •    x  rr 


COPTRIGHT,  1909,  BY 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


PREFACE 

IT  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors  of  this  book  to  give 
the  main  features  in  the  development  of  our  Nation,  to 
explain  the  America  of  to-day,  its  civilization  and  its  tra 
ditions.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  was  necessary  to  select 
topics  from  the  various  fields  of  human  activity,  the  politi 
cal,  industrial,  social,  educational,  and  religious.  Empha 
sis  has  been  placed  upon  the  fact  that  the  position  the 
United  States  occupies  among  the  great  nations  is  due 
primarily  to  the  achievements  of  men  and  women  in  these 
fields.  Consequently  the  military  phases  of  our  history, 
striking  as  some  of  them  are,  have  in  a  measure  been  sub 
ordinated  to  the  accounts  of  the  victories  of  peace.  We 
have  thought  it  desirable  also  to  give  greater  prominence 
than  has  been  usual  in  school  texts  to  the  advance  of  the 
frontier  and  to  the  growth  and  influence  of  the  West. 
Particular  care  has  been  taken  to  state  the  essential  facts 
in  European  history  necessary  to  the  explanation  of  events 
in  America. 

How  may  the  subject  be  best  presented  to  the  pupils  of 
high-school  age  has  been  constantly  in  mind.  To  that  end, 
only  trustworthy  illustrative  material  has  been  included 
and  the  maps  have  been  prepared  with  great  care.  While 
there  is  no  separate  chapter  or  section  devoted  to  a  discus 
sion  of  the  physical  geography  of  America,  it  will  be  noted 
that  the  influence  of  geographical  conditions  has  been  con 
stantly  stated  in  connection  with  events  and  conditions 
mentioned  in  the  volume. 

The  references  given  in  the  suggestive  questions  at  the 


viii  Contents 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVIII. — REORGANIZATION,  WESTWARD  MIGRATION,  AND 

INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS,   1815-1825,  .     .  271 

XIX. — THE   DEVELOPMENT    OP  NATIONALISM,    1815- 

1830, 285 

XX. — THE   NEW   DEMOCRACY  AND   THE    INCREASE 

OF  SECTIONAL  FEELING,  1830-1845,    .     .  297 

XXL — TERRITORIAL    EXPANSION    AND    GROWTH    OF 

THE  SLAVERY  ISSUE, 327 

XXII. — SLAVERY  EXTENSION  AND  SECTIONAL  FEELING,    346 
XXIII.— SECESSION  AND  CIVIL  WAR,    .     .....    .368 

XXIV.— THE  CIVIL  WAR  (Continued),  1863-1865,   .     .     .398 

XXV.— RECONSTRUCTION,  1863-1872,      .    .    V    .    ,     .  415 

XXVI.— DIPLOMACY,  FINANCE,  AND  POLITICS,  1865-1877,   437 

XXVII.— INDUSTRIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CHANGES,  1866-1886,  .  451 

XXVIII. — POLITICAL  CHANGES  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EXPAN 
SION,  1880-1890,      .    .    r   .   ..    .    .    .    .  460 

XXIX. — INDUSTRIAL  AND  POLITICAL  PROBLEMS,   1890- 

1897,      .......    .    *    .v  .    .    .  477 

XXX.— THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR,  1898,  .    .    .  ..  497 
XXXL— THE  OPENING  OF  A  NEW    ERA,    .    .    .    ...507 

APPENDIX 

I. — THE  CORRELATION  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  AND 

GOVERNMENT, 527 

II. — CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF 

AMERICA, 536 

III.— INDEX,  .  553 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON,        Frontispiece 

PAGE 

CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS,       7 

AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS, 12 

DE  SOTO, 22 

A  SPANISH  MISSION  CHURCH, 24 

SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE, 31 

SIR  HUMPHREY  GILBERT,       33 

SHIP  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY, 35 

JAMESTOWN  IN  1622, 44 

GEORGE  CALVERT,  FIRST  LORD  BALTIMORE, 46 

FIRST  SEAL  OF  PLYMOUTH  COLONY, 51 

SIGNATURE  OF  GOVERNOR  BRADFORD,     .......    52 

GOVERNOR  WINTHROP, 55 

SIGNATURE  OF  ROGER  WILLIAMS, 59 

OLD  HOUSE  IN  GUILFORD,  1639, 62 

CHARLESTON,  SOUTH  CAROLINA, 77 

WILLIAM  PENN, 79 

SIGNATURE  OF  GOVERNOR  BERKELEY, 86 

DUTCH  COTTAGE  IN  BEAVER  STREET,  NEW  YORK,  1679,  .     .    97 

PALISADED  INDIAN  VILLAGE, .  102 

CHAMPLAIN'S  PLAN  OF  THE  FORT  OF  THE  IROQUOIS,    .     .     .  107 
A  POSSIBLE  PORTRAIT  OF  MARQUETTE,       .     .     .     ,    .     .110 

GOVERNOR  SPOTSWOOD, 119 

WILLIAM  PITT, 123 

ix 


x  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 

VIEW  OF  QUEBEC, 124 

A  COLONIAL  FIRE  ENGINE, 130 

THREE-SHILLING  MASSACHUSETTS  BILL  OF  1741,    ....  132 
A  SATIRE  ON  ROYAL  GOVERNMENT,    .    »    ......  137 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 146 

JOHN  DICKINSON,  OF  PENNSYLVANIA, 149 

SAMUEL  ADAMS, •••••• 150 

CARPENTERS'  HALL,  PHILADELPHIA, 153 

RICHARD  HENRY  LEE,  OF  VIRGINIA,       . 157 

ROOM  IN  INDEPENDENCE  HALL  IN  WHICH  THE  DECLARATION 
WAS  SIGNED, 159 

LAFAYETTE, 169 

COLONEL  DANIEL  BOONE, 171 

NORTH  CAROLINA  CURRENCY, 174 

JOHN  PAUL  JONES, 175 

THE  OLD  POTTS  HOUSE  AT  VALLEY  FORGE,  USED  BY  WASH 
INGTON  AS  HEADQUARTERS,       182 

VIEW  OF  PITTSBURG  IN  1790, 190 

JOHN  JAY,    .    .    .    *    . 192 

FIRST  UNITED  STATES  COIN, 193 

DOLLAR  OF  1794, 216 

ALEXANDER  HAMILTON, 219 

HOME  OF  WASHINGTON, 223 

FORT  WASHINGTON  (CINCINNATI), 230 

JOHN  ADAMS, 232 

SAMUEL  SLATER,  ..."*.' 237 

MODEL  OF  COTTON  GIN,       238 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON,      ...,».. 242 

JOHN  MARSHALL,     .    , 243 


List  of  Illustrations  xj 


PAGK 


CAVALRY  PRIVATE,  1801, 244 

THE  CLERMONT, 249 

JAMES  MADISON, 254 

TECUMSEH, 256 

INFANTRY  PRIVATE,  1810,       .     .     '. 260 

THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  GUERRIERE, 263 

FLAT-BOAT,       275 

PLAN  OF  THE  ERIE  CANAL, 277 

JAMES  MONROE, 286 

JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS,       290 

HENRY  CLAY,       291 

JOHN  C.  CALHOUN,       .'293 

THE  HERMITAGE, 294 

ANDREW  JACKSON, 298 

FIRST  STEAM  TRAIN  RUN  ON  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE 

RAILROAD, > 300 

OLD  RAILROAD  TIME-TABLE, 301 

CITY  OF  WASHINGTON,  1830, \  305 

DANIEL  WEBSTER,    .     .     .    .     T 307 

WILLIAM  LLOYD  GARRISON,        .    .' 315 

WENDELL  PHILLIPS, 317 

CAMPAIGN  BUTTON,       319 

SAMUEL  F.  B.  MORSE, 323 

HOME  OF  JOHN  C.  CALHOUN, 324 

HARRIET  BEECHER  STOWE, 340 

STEPHEN  A.  DOUGLAS,       347 

JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL, 358 

ROGER  B.  TANEY, 360 

JOHN  BROWN,     .    .  363 


xii  List  of  Illustrations 


PAGE 


CAMPAIGN  BUTTON, 365 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,       369 

JEFFERSON  DAVIS, .    ,-  .    .     .372 

SALMON  P.  CHASE, .    .    .    .     .  374 

THE  CAIRO — A  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER  GUNBOAT,   .    ...  383 
JOHN  ERICSSON, ,   '.    .    .    v-  .     .  384 

TRANSVERSE   SECTION   OF  THE   MONITOR  THROUGH  THE 
CENTER  OF  THE  TURRET,    .     .     .    .    ...    .    .    .  385 

GEORGE  B.  MCCLELLAN,       .-.'•  .    .    .    .    .    .    ^  .     .  386 

GEN.  THOS.  J.  JACKSON,       .    .    .-   .    ,v.  ,.    .    ,    .    .  391 

FACSIMILE  OF  A  VICKSBURG  NEWSPAPER  PRINTED  ON  WALL 
PAPER,       .    .    .    .    . .    >    .     .  395 

FRACTIONAL  CURRENCY  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR  PERIOD,    .  .  400 

ULYSSES  SIMPSON  GRANT,      .     .     .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  .  404 

PHILIP  H.  SHERIDAN,   .     .*   .    .'   .    .    .    .    .    .    ..   .  .  407 

WILLIAM  TECUMSEH  SHERMAN,      .    .    '.  ..    ....    .  .  408 

GENERAL  ROBERT  E.  LEE,  C.  S.  A.,       ......  410 

PAROLE  SIGNED  BY  A  CONFEDERATE  SOLDIER,     .    ,:    .  .  417 

AMNESTY  OATH  TO  BE  TAKEN  BY  CONFEDERATES,  .     .  .417 

CHARLES  SUMNER,    .....    .    .    ...    .*  .    ...  .  422 

FACSIMILE  OF  A  BILL  FOR  FURNISHING  THE  STATE  HOUSE 
AT  COLUMBIA,  S.  C.,  IN  1872,  .     ...    .    .     .     .     .429 

FACSIMILE  OF  A  "GRATUITY"  VOTED  TO  GOVERNOR  MOSES 
BY  THE  SOUTH  CAROLINA  LEGISLATURE  IN  1871,    .     .  431 

HORACE  GREELEY,    ...    .    .    .    . 433 

WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD, 438 

SAMUEL  J.  TILDEN, .  446 

RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES, 448 

JAMES  A.  GARFIELD, 462 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  CURTIS, 463 


List  of  Illustrations  xiii 

PAGE 

GROVER  CLEVELAND, 465 

BENJAMIN  HARRISON, 469 

JAMES  G.  ELAINE,    .     .    .     . 471 

WILLIAM  JENNINGS  BRYAN, 483 

WILLIAM  McKiNLEY, 484 

SIDE  AND  FRONT  VIEWS  OF  BELL'S  FIRST  TELEPHONE,    .  491 
THOMAS  A.  EDISON, 492 

THE    UNITED    STATES    BATTLE-SHIP   MAINE    ENTERING 
HAVANA  HARBOR,  JANUARY,  1898, 498 

THE  ROUGH  RIDERS, 503 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT,- 509 

MACHINE  WHICH  REAPS,  THRESHES,  AND  BAGS  GRAIN  AT 
THE  SAME  TIME, 511 

AT  WORK  ON  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  IN  THE  CULEBRA  CUT,    .  515 

STEEL  PRODUCTIONS,  1903, 518 

A  COTTON  MILL,  AUGUSTA,  GA., 521 

WILLIAM  H.  TAFT,   ,  .  524 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

PAGE 

MEDIAEVAL  TRADE  ROUTES, 5 

REGIONS  EXPLORED  BY  COLUMBUS  AND  VESPUCIUS,    ...    11 

EARLY  GEOGRAPHICAL  IDEAS  OF  AMERICA,    . 13 

SPANISH  VOYAGES  OF  EXPLORATION  AND  CONQUEST,  ...  18 
THE  OUTWARD  VOYAGES  OF  GREAT  EXPLORERS,  ...  28 
GRANTS  MADE  TO  THE  LONDON  AND  PLYMOUTH  COMPANIES,  .  38 
EARLY  SETTLEMENTS  IN  VIRGINIA  AND  MARYLAND,  ...  40 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES, 57 

NEW  NETHERLAND  IN  1656, 72 

THE  CAROLINA  GRANT  BY  CHARTER  OF  1665,    ....    75 

THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES, 80 

LOCATION  OF  INDIANS  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY,  .    .    99 

THE  EXPLORATIONS  OF  CHAMPLAIN, 105 

THE  ROUTES  OF  THE  FRENCH  EXPLORERS, 109 

NORTH  AMERICA  IN  1689  AND  1713  (COLORED), 112 

THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WARS,  1689-1748,  .  .  .  .114 
FRENCH  POSTS  AND  PORTAGES  IN  THE  WEST,  .  .  .  .116 
WESTERN  FORTS — FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR,  .  .  .  .121 
EUROPEAN  POSSESSIONS  BY  TREATY  OF  PARIS  (COLORED),  .  125 

THE  VICINITY  OF  BOSTON  DURING  THE  SIEGE, 155 

THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1776,       163 

CAMPAIGNS  OF  1777, 166 

THE  WEST  DURING  THE  REVOLUTION, 172 


xvi  List  of  Maps 

PAGE 

THE  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES, 177 

MAP  SHOWING  THE  POSITION  OF  THE  FRENCH  AND  AMERI 
CAN  TROOPS  AT  YORKTOWN.    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  178 

THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1783  (COLORED), 187 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  IN  1790,       208 

WAYNE'S  CAMPAIGN  AND  TREATY  OF  GREENVILLE,     .     .    .231 

PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  OF  1800, 236 

THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1803  (COLORED),         .    .    .    .    .  246 

WAR,  1812,  ON  THE  NORTHERN  FRONTIER,        262 

LEADING  ROADS  AND  WATERWAYS,  1825  (COLORED),    .     .     .278 
DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  IN  1820,       .    »,".-.    .    .  279 
ELECTION  OF  1824,    „    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  '..  ,  .    ,    .    .    .  295 

ELECTION  OF  1828,    .    .'.    .    .    v    ...    .    .  ('-.    .    .295 

CANALS  AND  RAILROADS,  1840  (COLORED),       296 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  IN  1830,       .     .     ...    .  299 

TEXAS  AT  THE  TIME  OF  ANNEXATION,   .     .     .    .    .    .    .  329 

WESTERN  PART  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1850,    .     .     .  338 
ACQUISITION  OF  TERRITORY,  1789-1853  (COLORED),       .    -.  349 
DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION,  1860,       .    .    .    ...    .  353 

RAILWAYS  IN  1860,       ....    ,". .    .    .    .    *    i  "..'. ...    .355 

ELECTION,  1860,    .    .    .    .    .    :    .    . 365 

CHARLESTON  HARBOR,       .    .    ; 375 

THE  VICINITY  OF  WASHINGTON, 377 

THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1861, 378 

THE  SEAT  OF  WAR  IN  THE  WEST, .382 

McCLELLAN's   CAMPAIGN   IN   VIRGINIA,  1862, 387 

CAMPAIGNS  IN  THE  EAST,  1862-1863, 389 

MAP  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  GETTYSBURG,        393 

THE  VICKSBURG  AND  CHATTANOOGA  CAMPAIGNS,     .     .     .  394 


List  of  Maps  xvii 

PAGE 

GRANT'S  CAMPAIGN,  1864-1865, 403 

MAP  ILLUSTRATING  SHERMAN'S  MARCH  TO  THE  SEA,    .     .     .  409 

ELECTION  MAP  OF  1876, 447 

POPULATION  MAP,  1880,    .     . 461 

ELECTION  MAP  OF  1896,        . .482 

THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS, 500 

THE  WEST  INDIES  AND  ADJACENT  SHORES, 501 

THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  PACIFIC  (COLORED),       ....  505 

MOVEMENT  OF  CENTERS  OF  POPULATION  AND  MANUFAC 
TURES,  1790-1900, .  508 

PANAMA  CANAL  AND  UNITED  STATES  CANAL  STRIP,      .     .     .  514 
THE  VANDERBILT  RAILROAD  SYSTEM, 517 


AMERICAN   HISTORY 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA 

THE  geographical  separation  of  the  American  conti 
nents  from  those  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  is  the  first 
great  fact  in  their  history.  It  was,  in  part,  a  consequence 
of  this  fact  that  there  was  an  entire  lack  of  contact  between 
the  peoples  of  Europe  and  the  New  World  during  the 
many  centuries  when  civilization  was  developing  in  the 
former.  The  original  inhabitants  of  America  were  en 
tirely  uninfluenced  by  European  ideas,  and  never  devel 
oped  beyond  a  primitive  stage  of  civilization.  When,  at 
last,  the  streams  of  influence  began  to  flow  between  the 
Old  World  and  the  New,  the  civilization  that  crossed  the 
Atlantic  was  not  Oriental,  nor  classic,  nor  medieval,  but 
modern.  America  came  under  European  influence  pre 
cisely  at  the  time  when  the  new  life  and  the  new  spirit  of 
progress  that  characterize  modern  times  were  becoming 
dominant. 

The  long  isolation  of  America  was  due  to  the  obstacles  The  North- 
that  lay  in  the  way  of  its  discovery  by  Europeans.  These  £^s  voy" 
were,  briefly,  (1)  the  great  ocean  that  lay  between;  (2)  the 
lack  of  adequate  means  of  navigation;  and  (3)  the  lack  of 
the  spirit  of  adventure  and  geographical  inquiry,  or  its 
employment  in  other  directions.  These  difficulties  were 
temporarily  overcome  five  centuries  before  the  time  of 
Columbus  by  the  hardy  and  adventurous  Northmen  of 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  They  had  made  conquests 
upon  the  coasts  of  England  and  of  northern  France,  and 
had  penetrated  even  to  Mediterranean  countries.  They 

1 


American  History 


Leif  Eric- 
son  and 
Vinland. 


Ancient 
knowledge 
of  the 
sphericity 
and  size  of 
the  earth. 


sailed  in  their  long  boats*  to  Iceland  (874  A.D.),  and  there 
built  up  a  considerable  colony.  Greenland  was  next  found, 
and  here  Norse  settlements  existed  for  several  centuries. 
In  the  year  1000,  Leif  Ericson,  sailing  from  Norway  for 
Greenland,  lost  his  way  and  explored  for  some  distance 
along  a  strange  coast,  which  we  may  believe  was  that  of 
Nova  Scotia  or  of  New  England.  In  one  locality  he  found 
grapes  in  abundance;  and  so  we  have  the  name  Wineland, 
or  Vinland.  Other  voyages  followed  that  of  Leif,  and 
timber  was  carried  from  Vinland  to  Greenland  and  to  Ice 
land.  The  Northmen  traded  for  furs  with  the  Indians,  or 
"skraelings,"  as  they  called  the  natives,  and,  of  course, 
quarrels  arose  between  them  which  led  to  the  abandon 
ment  of  the  colony.  The  Norse  occupation  of  American 
coasts  was  not  renewed  because  of  the  difficulty  and  un 
profitableness  of  the  voyage. 

This  account  follows  the  old  Norse  traditions  or  sagas,  which 
were  first  written  in  permanent  form  about  two  centuries  after 
the  events  they  describe.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  how  many  of 
the  details  of  the  accounts  are  true.  Since  no  tangible  remains 
of  the  Norse  settlements  exist,  the  exact  location  of  their  explora 
tions  cannot  be  determined.  Probably  the  Norse  visits  to 
Vinland  had  no  influence  upon  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus;  for  the  knowledge  of  them  seems  to  have  had  no 
existence  in  southern  Europe  during 'the  Middle  Ages. 

It  has  been  stated  that  before  the  fifteenth  century  the 
people  of  Europe  lacked  the  means  of  navigation,  and 
the  curiosity  and  determination  that  were  necessary  to 
surmount  the  difficulties  of  a  trans-Atlantic  voyage.  The 
idea  that  such  a  voyage  was  possible  had  not  been  lack 
ing;  it  was,  in  fact,  based  upon  the  belief  in  the  sphericity 
of  the  earth.  This  belief  was  of  very  ancient  origin, 
having  been  taught  by  the  Greeks  of  the  sixth  century 

*  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Northmen  to  make  a  sea-roving  chieftain's 
boat  his  tomb  and  to  cover  it  with  a  huge  mound  of  earth.  One  of 
these  Viking  ships  was  unearthed  at  Gokstad,  Norway,  in  1880,  and 
another  at  Oseberg  in  1903.  Each  is  over  one  hundred  feet  long.  See 
Century  Magazine,  September,  1905,  729-733. 


The  Discovery  of  America  3 

before  Christ.     Aristotle   (fourth  century   B.C.),   Strabo 
(contemporaneous  with  Christ),  Pliny  (first  century  A.D.), 
and  Claudius  Ptolemy  (about  150,  A. D.),  are  among  the 
learned  men  of  Greece  and  Rome  who  taught  this  fact. 
Moreover,  the  size  of  the  earth  had  been  approximately 
calculated,  although  ancient  authorities  never  reached  an 
agreement  upon  this  matter.     This  knowledge  concerning 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  earth  did  not  die  out  with  the  Jtg 
decline  of  learning  that  took    place   during   the  Middle  missTorTto 
Ages ;  but,  preserved  by  the  Arabians  and  by  the  scholars   jj^™ 
of  the  monasteries,  it  was  transmitted  to  the  time  of  Co 
lumbus.     At  this  time  "  astronomers,  philosophers,  men 
of  general  learning,  and  even  navigators  and  pilots  were 
quite  familiar  with  the  idea  and   quite  in  the  habit  of 
thinking  of  the  earth  as  a  sphere."  * 

In  the  Colombina  Library  at  Seville  there  may  be  seen  a  Latin 
treatise  upon  geography  written  by  Cardinal  D'Ailly  or  Alliacus, 
a  learned  theologian  and  philosopher;  and  upon  its  margins  are 
annotations  in  the  handwriting  of  Columbus.  Now,  this  author 
(writing  about  1400)  quotes  Roger  Bacon  (about  1250),  who  in 
turn  quotes  Aristotle  as  authority  upon  these  matters.  Thus 
"the  torch  which  Aristotle  had  kindled  was  transmitted  by 
Bacon  to  Alliacus;  Alliacus  handed  it  on  to  Columbus. "f 

Nor  did  the  geographers  of  ancient  times  hesitate  to 
follow  their  ideas  to  logical  conclusions;  viz.,  that  the  great 
sea  which  lay  west  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (Gibraltar) 
was  the  same  that  washed  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia;  and 
that  a  vessel  sailing  westward  from  Spain  would  surely 
reach  those  shores.  Such  beliefs  were,  of  course,  confined 
to  the  learned  few  and  to  navigators.  The  mass  of  peo 
ple  in  both  ancient  and  medieval  times  held  the  concep 
tion  of  a  flat  earth,  surrounded  by  oceans,  and  covered 
by  the  dome-like  heavens. 

*  Cheyney,  European  Background  of  American  History,  52. 

t  Payne,  History  of  America,  I,  50.  For  a  reproduction  of  Alli- 
acus's  treatise  showing  the  annotations  of  Columbus,  see  Wilson, 
History  of  the  American  People,  I,  3.  Also  Winsor,  Narrative  and 
Critical  History,  I,  31. 


American  History 


Geograph 
ical  discov 
ery  was  one 
phase  of 
the  Re 
naissance. 


Improve 
ments  in 
navigation. 


At  the  beginning  of  modern  times,  conditions  became 
favorable  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  trans-Atlantic 
voyage  and  the  discovery  of  America. 

1.  The  fourteenth  and  the  fifteenth  centuries  mark  a 
transition  period  in  the  history   of  civilization;  for  there 
came  about  in  these  centuries  many  changes  presaging  the 
new  intellectual  activity  of  modern  times.     This  was  the 
high  tide  of  the  Renaissance.     The  human  mind  was  as 
suming  the  attitude  of  inquiry  toward  both   nature  and 
man.     Hence  we  have  notable  contributions  to  civilization 
not  only  in  the  fields  of  art  and  literature  but  also  in  those 
of  science  and  invention.     We  find  at  this  time  evidences 
of  that  modern  scientific  curiosity  coupled  with  the  practi 
cal  spirit  of  enterprise  which  had  been  lacking  in  ancient 
and  medieval   times,  and  which  we  may  regard  as  an  in 
dispensable  condition  for  the  discovery  of  the  New  World 
by  the  Old.     This  was  the  age  of  exploration — men  were 
making  geographical  discoveries  in  all  directions.     The 
reaching  out  for  new  lands  was  but  one  form  in  which 
the  intellectual  activity  of  the  new  era  found  expression. 
The  epoch-making  voyage  of  Columbus  was  not  an  iso 
lated  event,  but  only  one  in  a  long  series    of  discoveries. 
"The greatest  fruit  of  the  Renaissance  was  America."* 

2.  In  the  time  of  Columbus  the  facilities  for  making 
an  extensive  ocean  voyage  were  better  than  ever  before. 
The  compass,  probably  derived  by  the  Arabs  from  the 
Chinese,  had  been  used  in  navigation  for  several  centuries, 
and  gradually  mariners  had  become  emboldened  by  its  use. 
The  astrolabe,  by  means  of  which  latitude  could  be  de 
termined  from  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  was  a 
great  aid   to   navigation.     In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
small  galleys  of  ancient  times  began  to  be  superseded  by 
high-built  vessels    fit   to  navigate    the  ocean   and  large 
enough  to  carry  the  stores  needed  on  a  long  voyage. 

3.  The   immediate  cause,    supplying   the  impulse   for 
the    crossing    of    the  Atlantic    Ocean,   was    commercial. 

*  Payne,  History  of  America,  I,  14. 


The  Discovery  of  America 


It  was  simply  the  necessity   for   opening   up   new  routes  Trade  with 
for    commerce  with    the    Orient.      The    old    routes,    as  ^s^fmu- 
shown  on  the  accompanying  map,  had  been  in  use  since  lated  by 
ancient   times.     India   and  other   eastern   countries   had   crusades, 
been,  from  time  immemorial,  the  sources  of  luxuries  and 


7      o*« 
^-^, 


Medieval  Trade  Routes. 


riches  craved  by  the  people  of  Mediterranean  countries. 
That  great  movement  of  the  twelfth  and  the  thirteenth 
centuries  known  as  the  Crusades  had  brought  Europeans 
into  closer  contact  with  travellers  and  traders  from  the 
East;  thus  new  products  were  introduced  into  Europe,  the 


American  History 


Ideas  of 
India  and 
Cathay. 


routes  and  methods  of  trade  became  more  familiar,  and 
from  this  time  the  growth  of  commerce  became  very 
marked.  The  sugar  and  spices,  silks  and  jewels,  drugs 
and  oils  of  the  East  were  exchanged  for  the  iron,  tin,  lead, 
grains,  wool,  soap,  and  furs  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Baltic  countries. 

Fifteenth-century  Europeans  believed  that  the  commercial 
possibilities  of  that  indefinite  and  almost  unknown  region  called 
"India,"  were  by  no  means  fully  developed.  Vague  stories 
were  afloat  concerning  the  untold  riches  of  that  land  and  of  others 
lying  beyond.  From  Cathay  (China)  had  come  accounts  of 
populous  empires  and  their  enormous  resources.  Marco  Polo, 
an  Italian,  had  first  travelled  in  Cathay,  and  later  had  lived  there 
for  seventeen  years  in  official  service.  His  accounts  of  the 
country  and  its  riches,  written  about  two  centuries  before  the 
discovery  of  America,  and  while  he  was  lying  in  a  Genoese  prison, 
were  now  being  studied  with  great  interest. 

Practical  The  necessity  for  a  new  route  to  the  eastern  countries 
new°trader  came  about  when,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  Turks 
routes.  began  to  attack  the  caravans  and  to  restrict  the  trade  by 
the  old  routes.  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the  Turks 
in  1453;  and  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  a  like 
fate  was  suffered  by  all  the  cities  that  were  centres  of  Euro 
pean  trade  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the  eastern  Mediter 
ranean.  Trade  was  not  forbidden,  but  the  supply  of 
eastern  products  available  for  European  markets  was  very 
much  reduced,  because  merchants  were  burdened  with  re 
strictions,  because  life  and  property  became  unsafe,  and 
because  the  barbarous  Turks,  caring  little  themselves  for 
the  luxuries  of  the  East,  cared  less  to  import  them  for  sale 
in  the  West.  At  the  same  time,  the  growth  of  wealth  in 
European  countries  gave  rise  to  an  increased  demand  for 
these  goods.  The  Red  Sea  route  was  not  closed  until  the 
Turks  captured  Egypt,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century;  but 
the  Arabs  had  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  by  this  route,  and 
raised  the  prices.  All  western  Europe  felt  the  burden  of  these 
new  conditions ;  and  it  was  the  determination  to  open  up  new 
highways  of  commerce  with  the  East  and  thus  at  once  to 


The  Discovery  of  America  7 

thwart  the  enmity  of  the  Turks  and  to  introduce  competi 
tion  with  the  Arabs,  that  led  to  the  discovery  of  America. 


Christopher  Columbus 
Marine  Museum,  Madrid 


Contemporaneously  with  these  changes,  others  of  great  The  influ- 
consequence  were  taking  place.     The  nations  of  western  p"^c°f 
Europe,  whose  borders  touched  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  were  Henry  of 
rising  into  prominence,  and  foremost  among  them  was  the 
little  kingdom  of  Portugal.     Prince  Henry  of  Portugal 


8 


American  History 


The  theory 
of  Colum 
bus. 


False  geo 
graphical 
ideas. 


(1394-1460),  gave  great  encouragement  not  only  to  scien 
tific  investigation  but  also  to  practical  exploration.  By 
the  year  1460  Portugese  navigators  had  visited  all  the 
island  groups  that  lay  off  the  coast  of  Africa — the  Ma 
deiras,  the  Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands — and  were  pushing  their  voyages  gradually  south 
ward  along  the  coast  of  that  continent.  Besides  the  trad 
ing  motive  that  incited  these  voyages  there  came  to  be 
a  conscious  attempt  to  discover  a  new  route  to  India,  an 
attempt  based  upon  the  current  belief  (this  in  turn  based 
upon  classic  authorities)  that  Africa  did  not  extend  so  far 
south  as  the  equator.  Therefore,  it  was  argued,  a  short 
voyage  to  India  could  be  made  around  this  continent. 
During  the  third  quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Portu 
guese  voyagers  sailed  farther  south  on  the  western  coast 
of  Africa,  crossing  the  equator  in  1471,  and  later  finding 
longer  stretches  of  coast  to  the  southward. 

Columbus  had  lived  in  Portugal,  probably  between 
1470  and  1486,  and  during  a  large  part  of  this  time  was  in 
the  maritime  service  of  that  country.  Consequently  he 
was  familiar  with  the  advanced  ideas  of  geography  and 
navigation  there  prevalent.  It  was  his  contention  that 
the  shortest  water  route  to  India  lay  due  west  across  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  rather  than  around  Africa. 

Although,  in  ancient  times,  a  close  approximation  had 
been  made  to  the  actual  size  of  the  earth,  it  was  the  belief 
of  Columbus  that  the  islands  lying  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Asia  were  distant  from  the  Canaries  only  2,500  miles. 
This  view  is  explained  by  the  fact  that,  according  to  many 
authorities  of  his  time,  Asia  extended  eastward  for  a  dis 
tance  equal  to  the  entire  width  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
This  geographical  error  was  most  fortunate  for  Columbus; 
for  had  his  knowledge  of  the  distance  between  Europe  and 
Asia  been  accurate,  he  would  probably  never  have  under 
taken  the  voyage. 

The  ambition  of  Columbus  was  aided  by  another  geographical 
misconception;  viz.,  that  in  the  mid-Atlantic  islands  existed  that 


The  Discovery  of  America  9 

would  serve  as  half-way  stages  on  the  western  voyage.  English 
and  Portuguese  sailors  had  repeatedly  set  forth  to  find  these  fabled 
islands,  but  without  success. 

In  the  biography  of  Columbus,  written  by  his  son  Ferdinand,    The  letters 
we  are  told  that  a  famous  doctor  of  Florence,  Toscanelli  by    and  map 
name,  wrote  letters,  first  to  a  friend  in  Portugal  and  later  to    nelli°SC 
Columbus,  sustaining  the  geographical  ideas  above  stated  and 
encouraging  the  execution  of  a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Accompanying  his  letter  in  each  case  was  a  map  showing  the 
proximity  of  Asia  to  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  and  also  show 
ing,  in  favorable  positions,  various  islands  that  we  know  to  be 
mythical.     It  is  said  in  the  biography  that  Columbus  carried  a 
copy  of  this  map  when  on  his  first  voyage. 

The  most  eminent  authorities  disagree  upon  many  points  in 
the  life  of  Columbus.  We  may  be  certain  that  he  led  a  seafaring 
life  during  his  youth.and  that  his  occupation  as  a  man  was  map- 
and  chart-making.  He  went  on  many  voyages,  and  probably 
visited  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  of  Iceland.  He  was  a  deep  stu 
dent  of  all  available  writings  upon  geography  and  navigation. 
His  convictions  were  based  upon  years  of  patient  study. 

By  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  times  were  ripe 
for  the  long-postponed  transatlantic  voyage;  the  idea  of 
its  possibility  rested  upon  a  secure  foundation;  many  bold 
voyages  were  being  undertaken,  and  Portugal  was  the 
centre  of  maritime  activity.  Here  Columbus  first  made 
an  effort  to  secure  aid  in  the  execution  of  his  plans.  But 
the  Portuguese  were  interested  in  the  route  around  Africa. 
Columbus  was,  in  consequence,  forced  to  seek  aid  else 
where,  and  in  1484  he  went  to  Spain,  at  the  same  time 
sending  his  brother  Bartholomew  to  England. 

In  his  application  for  aid  at  the  Court  of  Spain  Colum-  The  experi- 
bus  dwelt  mainly  upon  the  commercial  advantages  that  Columbus 
would  certainly  result  from  his  success ;  and  upon  the  pros-  in  Spain. 
pect  of  carrying  the  Christian  religion  to  the  heathen 
peoples  of  the  East.     For  years  he  pleaded  in  vain.     The 
greatest  obstacle  to  his  success  was  the  fact  that  the  Span 
ish  monarchs,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  were  then  engaged 
in  that  fierce  struggle  with  the  Moors  which  ended  in  1492 
with  the  capture  of  Granada.     When  the  war  was  over, 
Columbus  was  summoned  to  the  court,  and  then  arose 


10  American  History 

another  obstacle  which  nearly  defeated  his  plans.  The 
terms  upon  which  Columbus  was  willing  to  lead  his  ex 
pedition  were,  in  view  of  the  attendant  risk,  considered  al 
together  too  high.  But  finally,  through  the  efforts  of  in 
fluential  friends  of  Columbus,  Queen  Isabella  authorized 
the  expedition. 

In  the  negotiations  preceding  his  voyage,  we  mark  the 
perseverance  of  Columbus  as  that  of  a  really  great  man; 
his  practical  wisdom  is  seen  in  his  demand  that  the  expe 
dition  should  be  equipped  on  a  scale  large  enough  to  ac 
complish  the  end  in  view;  and  his  supreme  faith  and  cour 
age  challenge  our  admiration.  He  dared  to  do  what  others 
had  only  dreamed  of. 

The  four  The  first  voyage,  from  its  beginning  at  Palos  in  Spain 
voyages.  until  the  discovery  of  a  small  island  in  the  Bahama  group, 
on  October  12,  1492,  lasted  ten  weeks.  We  must  hold 
constantly  in  mind  the  fact  that  Columbus  believed  that 
the  lands  discovered  were  Asiatic.  It  was  well  known 
that  many  islands  lay  to  the  south  and  east  of  Asia. 
When,  however,  Columbus  reached  the  northern  coast  of 
Cuba,  and  when  on  his  second  voyage  (1493),  he  explored 
its  southern  coast,  he  believed  that  he  was  on  the  main 
land  of  Cochin  China.  To  him,  Hayti  was  the  northern 
end  of  Cipango  (Japan) — that  wonderfully  rich  island  of 
which  Marco  Polo  had  written  exaggerated  reports.  The 
first  and  second  voyages  were  disappointing;  only  small 
quantities  of  gold  had  been  found,  and  the  populous  cities 
of  India  still  lay  beyond.  In  the  conviction  that  his  goal 
lay  farther  south,  Columbus  directed  his  third  voyage 
(1498)  that  way,  and  found  the  northern  coast  of  South 
America  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River.  This  he 
spoke  of  as  "the  main  land  and  very  large";  and  again 
as  "another  world."  In  the  same  year,  the  Portuguese 
navigator,  Vasco  da  Gama,  sailed  around  Africa  to  India 
and  returned  with  a  rich  cargo.  This  proved  a  serious 
blow  to  the  reputation  of  Columbus,  and  constituted  one 
cause  for  the  discoverer's  decline  in  favor.  Added  to  this 


The  Discovery  of  America 


11 


were  the  failure  of  the  colonies  that  he  had  planted  in  the 
West  Indies  and  the  machinations  of  his  enemies  both 
in  the  colonies  and  at  the  Spanish  Court.    But  Columbus 
was  permitted  to  make  one  more  effort  to  penetrate  the 
obstacles  that  lay  between  Spain  and  India.    In  1502-1504 
he  skirted  the  coasts  of  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Panama 
in  a  vain  effort 
to  find    the 
straits  that 
would   lead 
him  into  the 
Indian  Ocean. 
Columbus 
died  in    1506, 
a  broken  and 
defeated  old 
man,  still   be 
lieving  that  he 
had  found  Asia 
and  the  Indies, 
and  south  of 
these  "  another 
world." 

How  did  it 
happen  that 
the  continents 
of  the  Western 

Hemisphere  received   the  name   "America,"   instead   of 
being  named  for  their  real  discoverer,  Columbus  ?     When 
the    Portuguese    had    succeeded    in    exploring    extensive 
coasts  along  western  Africa,   the  Pope  issued  a  decree  The  "Line 
granting  to  that  nation  the  control  of  those  heathen  coun-  cltion^es- 
tries  and  of  others  that  they  might  discover  even  "as  far  tablished. 
as  India."     Upon  the  return  of  Columbus  from  his  first 
voyage,  it  became  evident  that  Spain  also  must  have  a 
claim  in  Asiatic  waters.     To  arrange  the  division  between 
these  two  countries,  a  bull  was  issued  by   Pope  Alex- 


VOYAGES  OF  COLU 

1st  

2nd  

3rd  - 

4th 

VOYAGES  OF  VESPUCI 
fgf      ,,,,,, 

2nd 
3rd 


The  Regions  Explored  by  Columbus  and  Vespucius 


12 


American  History 


ander  VI  in  1493,  and  this  was  supplemented  by  a  treaty 
in  1494,  which  finally  settled  a  "line  of  demarcation." 
This  was  a  meridian  located  370  degrees  west  of  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands.*  The  Portuguese,  then,  were  free 
to  make  their  future  voyages  along  the  African  coast  and 
eastward  to  Asia;  while  the  Spanish,  going  westward 


The  ex 
ploration 
of  the 
South 
American 
coast. 


Americus  Vespucius 

From  Herrera's  Historia  Generate  de  las  India 

across  the  line  of  demarcation,  might  explore  and  colon 
ize  the  heathen  lands  in  that  direction. 

Now,  in  the  year  1500  a  Portuguese  navigator,  Cabral 
by  name,  was  making  a  voyage  around  Africa  to  India. 
In  the  tropical  latitudes  the  course  of  his  fleet  bore  so  far 
westward  that  he  sighted  the  coast  of  Brazil.  This  he 
knew  must  be  east  of  the  line  of  demarcation  and  hence 
within  the  sphere  assigned  to  Portugal.  When  the  news 
of  Cabral's  discovery  reached  Portugal,  an  expedition  was 
sent  out,  with  which  went  Americus  Vespucius,  an  as- 
*About  41  degrees  west  longitude  from  Greenwich. 


SKETCH  OF  A  MAP  MADE  BY  BARTHOLOMEW  COLUMBUS.    THE  EARLIEST  TO 
CONTAIN  THE  NAME  MONDO  NOVOCNEW  WORLD) 


II 


THE  LENOX  GLOBE 


EARLY  GEOGRAPHICAL    IDEAS 
OF   AMERICA 

I  The  connection  of  the  New  World 
with  Asia 

II  The  New  World  (South  America)  a 
separate  continent 

III     The  application  of  the  name  "America" 
to  both  continents 


MERCATORrS  MAP  T541 


Early  Geographical  Ideas  of  America 


14  American  History 

tronomer  and  navigator.  In  the  years  1501  and  1502  this 
expedition  skirted  the  coast  of  Brazil  from  Cape  St. 
Roque  southward  for  700  leagues,  reaching  35  degrees 
south  latitude.  In  previous  years  other  expeditions  had  ex 
plored  the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  and  thus  the 
idea  of  the  immensity  of  this  land,  dimly  realized  by  Colum 
bus,  became  impressed  upon  men's  minds.  This  was  in 
truth  a  real  continent;  and,  moreover,  it  was  a  continent 
hitherto  unknown;  for  it  lay  under  and  south  of  the  equator. 
It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  when  Vespucius  wrote  an 
account  of  his  voyage  he  called  this  land  "Mundus  Novus," 
or  the  New  World.  Copies  of  his  letter  were  printed  in 
many  different  editions  and  scattered  broadcast,  especially 
through  northern  Europe. 

The  nam-  In  1507  Waldseemuller,  a  German  geographer,  was  pub- 
America,  lishing  a  treatise,  and  in  his  comments  upon  the  explora 
tions  of  Vespucius  he  used  the  following  language:  "But 
now  these  parts  have  been  more  extensively  explored,  and 
another  fourth  part  has  been  discovered  by  Americus  Ves 
pucius  .  .  .  wherefore  I  do  not  see  what  is  rightly  to  hinder 
us  from  calling  it  Amerige  or  America,  i.  e.,  the  land  of  Ameri 
cus,  after  its  discoverer  Americus,  a  man  of  sagacious  mind, 
since  both  Europe  and  Asia  have  got  their  names  from  wo 
men."*  The  newly  invented  art  of  printing  made  possible  the 
rapid  multiplication  of  the  geographies  in  which  this  sugges 
tion  was  made;  as  a  result,  the  name  America  soon  became 
fixed,  first  upon  the  southern  continent,  and  later  upon  the 
northern  one  also,  when  it  was  no  longer  confused  with  Asia. 

Slight  protest  against  the  injustice  thus  unintentionally  done 
Columbus  arose  at  this  time  in  Spain,  because  of  the  ignorance 
there  concerning  the  use  of  the  name  America  in  northern  Europe. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  countries  outside  of  Spain,  people  failed 
to  realize  this  injustice  because  little  was  known  concerning 
Columbus's  third  voyage.  The  account  of  this  voyage  of  1498 
was  not  printed  in  Latin  until  1508,  several  years  after  the  voy 
ages  of  Vespucius  had  become  celebrated. 

*Quoted  in  Fiske,  Discovery  of  America,  II,  136.  See  here  also  a 
fac-simile  in  Latin  of  the  passage  quoted. 


The  Discovery  of  America  15 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  General  accounts  of  the  Northmen.     Higginson,  Larger 
History  of  the  United  States,  chap.  2.     Fiske,  Discovery  of  Amer 
ica,    I,    chap.    2.     Thwaites,    The    Colonies,    21-23.     Larned, 
History  for  Ready  Reference  (America  lOth-llth  centuries). 

2.  Contemporary  accounts.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  I,  No.  16. 
Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  31.     American  History  Leaflets,  No.  3. 

3.  What  reasons  does  Fiske  give  for  believing  the  accounts  of 
the  sagas?     Discovery  of  America,  I,  178-194. 

4.  The  Viking  ship.     Higginson,*  31-35.     Fiske,  172-175. 

5.  A  poetical  version  of  the  Norse  visits  to  America  is  found 
in  Longfellow's  "Skeleton  in  Armor." 

6.  What  reasons  are  there  why  the  Norse  discoveries  produced 
no  effect  in  Europe?     Fiske,  I,  257-262. 

7.  WThat  nation  of  ancient  times  resembled  the  Northmen  in 
their  prominence  as  a  sea-faring  and  exploring  people  ? 

8.  Interesting  accounts  on  the  following  topics  are  found  in 
Fiske's  Discovery  of  America,  Vol.  I :  The  Influence  of  the  Cru 
sades,  270-276;  Marco  Polo,  280-287;  Difficulties  of  Exploration, 
309-316;  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  316-320.     See  map  of 
Portuguese  voyages,  324. 

9.  Marco  Polo's  account  of  Japan  and  Java  is  given  in  Old 
South  Leaflets,  No.  32. 

10.  Where  are  the  Turks  to-day?     Who  controls  the  shortest 
route  from  Western  Europe  to  India?     Has  Columbus's  idea 
been  realized? 

11.  Maps  showing  the  two  different  ideas  of  Africa  are  found 
in  Fiske,  Discovery,  I,  265,  304. 

12.  For  an  excellent  summary  of  commercial  conditions  pre 
ceding  the  discovery  of  America,  see  Adams,  Civilization  During 
the  Middle  Ages,  283-290. 

13.  Reasons  why  Europeans  were  eager  to  reach  the  East. 
Cheyney,  European  Background  of  American  History,  9—19. 

14.  General  accounts  of  the  discovery  of  America.     Higgin 
son,  Larger  History  of  the    United  States,  52-64.      Bancroft, 
History  of  the  United  States,  I,  7-9;  12-13.     Larned,  History  for 
Ready  Reference,  "America." 

*Where,  as  in  this  reference,  and  the  next,  a  title  is  omitted,  it  has 
been  given  in  some  previous  reference  of  the  same  set. 


16  American  History 

15.  Contemporaneous  accounts.       (a)  Columbus's   Letter  to 
St.  Angel,  written  on  the  return  from  his  first  voyage,  in  Ameri 
can  History  Leaflets,  No.  1.     (6)  Here,  also,  are  extracts  from 
the  journal  of  Columbus,  dated  October  10  and  11,  1492.     (c)  For 
other  extracts  from  the  journal,  see  Hart,  Contemporaries,  I, 
35-39.     (d)  Columbus's  letter  to  Sanchez,  Hart,  Source  Book, 
1-3.     (e)  The  account  of  the  discovery,  from  the  Life  of  Colum 
bus,  by  his  son,  Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  29.     (/)  The  memorial 
of  Columbus  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  (1494)  presenting  his 
plans  for  a  colony.     Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  71,  1-8.     (g]  Let 
ter  of  Columbus  to  the  monarchs   (1503),    Hart,    Contempo 
raries,  I,  No.  19.     (h)  Columbus's  account  of  Cuba,  Old  South 
Leaflets,  No.  102. 

16.  Preparations  of  Columbus  for  his  work.     Bourne,  Spain 
in  America,  8—20. 

17.  The  following  topics  are  discussed  in  Fiske's  Discovery  of 
America,  Vol.  I: — Columbus's  relations  with  Toscanelli,  355-367. 
The  early  life  of  Columbus,  349-354.     Ideas  of  the  earth,  377- 
381.     The    first    voyage,    421-431.     Second    voyage,    462-478. 
Third  voyage,  488-498.     Fourth  voyage,  504-513. 

18.  Adams's  Christopher  Columbus.     His  first  appearance  at 
the  court  of  Spain,  49-53.     His  visit  to  La  Rabida,  61-63.     His 
demands  and  the  commission,  63-71.     The  first  landing  place, 
88-93.     Relations  with  the  Indians  on  the  second  voyage,  129- 
139;    144-146;   159-163.    Third  voyage,  177-182.     Arrest  and 
imprisonment  of  Columbus,  195-204.     His  character,  251-257. 

19.  Important  topics  in  this  chapter  are  treated  in  James  and 
Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chapter  I,  The  Discovery 
of  America. 


CHAPTER  II 
SPANISH  EXPLORATION  AND  COLONIZATION 

COLUMBUS  and  his  contemporaries  made  only  a  begin-  Newgeo- 
ning  in  the  discovery  and  exploration  of  America;  their 
work  revealed  the  problems  that  lay  before  the  explorers 
who  were  to  follow.  Men  were  asking,  did  any  part  of 
the  newly  discovered  lands  belong  to  the  mainland  of  Asia  ? 
Could  the  strait  be  found  that  would  lead  the  voyager 
through  the  island  groups  into  the  Indian  Ocean?  In 
what  direction  lay  Cathay  and  Cipango,  and  how  far  dis 
tant  were  the  shores  of  India  ?  Gradually,  in  the  course  of 
the  events  that  followed,  the  truth  was  revealed  that  a  con 
tinuous  coast-line  barred  the  way  to  Asia,  and  that  beyond 
this  barrier  lay  another  ocean,  vaster  by  far  than  the  At 
lantic. 

The  earliest  Spanish  settlements  were  established  on  the  Spanish 
island  of  Hayti,  then  called  Hispaniola.  Porto  Rico  was 
soon  occupied,  and  next  Cuba.  From  these  stations  lines 
of  exploration  radiated  in  three  directions,  south-west,  west, 
and  north-west,  until  the  continental  coast-line  lay  com 
pletely  revealed.  The  voyages  of  Columbus  to  the  Pearl 
Coast  of  northern  South  America  (1498)  and  to  Darien 
(1502-1503)  were  followed  by  other  Spanish  expeditions  in 
those  directions.  The  search  for  gold  led  to  the  establish 
ment  of  Spanish  posts  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  it  is 
among  the  adventurers  who  were  exploring  in  this  region 
that  we  find  Balboa.  Inspired  by  the  suggestion  of  a  rich 
land  lying  to  the  southward,  Balboa  crossed  the  isthmus 
and  beheld  the  Pacific  Ocean  (1513),  naming  it  the 
South  Sea  in  contrast  to  the  Caribbean,  or  northern,  sea. 

17 


18 


American  History 


covery  of 


Florida. 


Explora 
tion  and 
conquest 
of  Mexico. 


Thus  was  taken  the  first  step  toward  the  discovery  and 
conquest  of  Peru.  In  the  same  year  Ponce  de  Leon, 
Governor  of  Porto  Rico,  was  given  a  commission  to  ex- 
plore  northward  in  search  of  a  fabled  land  called  "Bimini." 
On  Easter  Sunday,  1513,  his  expedition  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Florida.  Before  returning,  his  vessels  followed 


Spanish  Voyages  of  Exploration  and  Conquest 

the  coast  around  the  southern  end  of  the  peninsula  and  for 
some  distance  along  its  western  side. 

In  the  first  settlement  made  in  Cuba  (1511)  the  scarcity 
of  Indian  slaves  led  to  a  slave-catching  expedition  to  the 
westward  by  Cordova.  He  found  the  coast  of  Yucatan 
(1517),  and  here  the  Spaniards  first  saw  signs  indicating 
that  the  Indians  of  this  region  were  comparatively  advanced 
in  civilization  and  were  possessed  of  great  wealth.  In  the 
following  year  the  coast  of  Mexico  was  explored ;  here  were 
indications  that  the  Spaniards  had  at  last  found  the  rich 
and  populous  lands  described  by  Marco  Polo.  Cortez 
was  now  sent  (1519)  to  take  possession  of  this  country  and 


Spanish  Exploration  and  Colonization  19 


to  push  onward  until  Cathay  was  reached.  But  instead 
of  the  civilized  peoples  of  the  East,  Cortez  found  in  his 
progress  the  barbarous  Indians  of  Mexico.  The  explo 
rations  of  Pineda,  who,  in  1519,  first  skirted  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  from  Florida  to  Mexico,  demonstrated  the  hopeless 
ness  of  the  search  for  a  strait  leading  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Evidently,  the  way  to  Asia  lay  not  directly  west.  A 
brave  Portuguese  navigator,  Magellan,  believed  that  a 
route  might  be  found  around  the  southern  end  of  the  new 
continent,  America,  which  would  be  shorter  than  that 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Appealing  to  the  Spanish  Court  for  a  fleet,  Magellan  maintained 
that  the  Spice  Islands,  or  Moluccas,  of  which  Portugal  was  just 
then  taking  possession,  were  outside  its  jurisdiction;  for  he  wrong 
ly  supposed  that  they  lay  east  of  the  meridian  which  continued 
the  Pope's  line  of  demarcation  on  the  other  side  of  the  globe. 
Persuaded  by  his  arguments,  the  Spanish  Government  fitted 
out  a  fleet  of  five  ships.  It  was  more  than  a  year  after  his  sail 
ing,  that,  having  passed  through  many  dangers  from  storm  and 
mutiny,  Magellan's  ships  threaded  the  straits  now  bearing  his 
name  and  sailed  out  upon  the  ocean  which  he  named  the  Pacific. 
Running  north  for  some  distance,  he  then  struck  westward  with 
out  the  least  conception  that  five  thousand  miles  of  ocean  lay 
between  him  and  Asia.  After  horrible  sufferings  from  lack  of 
food  and  water,  Magellan  arrived  in  1521  at  the  Ladrone  Islands 
and  soon  afterward  at  the  Philippines.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  that  Spanish  occupation  of  these  islands  which  was  ended  so 
recently  by  their  transference  to  the  United  States  (1898-1899). 
Magellan  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  natives,  and  but  one  of 
his  vessels,  carrying  the  eighteen  survivors  of  his  original  com 
pany  of  nearly  three  hundred  persons,  traversed  the  entire  dis 
tance  around  the  globe  and  arrived  finally  at  Spain.  Even  after 
this  remarkable  voyage,  men  were  slow  to  grasp  the  truth  con 
cerning  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  for  many  years  the  idea  persisted 
that  North  America  was  in  some  way  connected  with  Asia. 

An  effort  to  find  the  Asiatic  route  by  a  northern  voyage  was 
made  by  the  Spanish  explorer,  Gomez,  in  1524,  when  he  sailed 
as  far  along  the  coast  of  North  America  as  Nova  Scotia.  In 
1526  D'Ayllon  founded  an  unsuccessful  colony  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  perhaps  in  Chesapeake  Bay  near  the  future  site  of  James 
town.  It  was  his  purpose,  also,  to  penetrate,  if  possible,  the 
lands  that  barred  the  way  to  Asia. 


Anew 

route  to 

India, 

around 

South 

America. 


The  cir 
cumnavi 
gation  of 
the  earth. 


Other 
efforts  to 
reach  Asia. 


20 


American  History 


The  In 
dians  of 
the  West 
Indies. 


The  Mex 
ican  In 
dians. 


Conditions 
affecting 
the  Span 
ish  con 
quest. 


The  Indians  with  whom  the  Spaniards  came  into  contact 
in  the  West  Indies  lived  in  savagery  or  in  the  lower  stages 
of  barbarism.  They  were  sometimes  docile  and  friendly 
to  the  Spaniards  upon  their  first  appearance,  as  in  the 
Bahamas  and  Hayti,  and  sometimes  hostile,  as  in  the  lesser 
Antilles.  Some  were  cannibals  of  a  low  type.  In  the  main 
it  may  be  said  that  they  offered  little  resistance  to  the  Span 
ish  conquest  of  the  islands. 

In  Mexico,  however,  the  Spaniards  found  the  natives 
living  in  villages  where  their  pueblos,  or  adobe  houses, 
were  often  large  enough  to  accommodate  hundreds  of 
persons.  They  dressed  in  colored  cotton  cloth,  were 
skilled  in  agriculture,  and  had  constructed  excellent  sys 
tems  of  irrigation.  They  possessed  domestic  animals,  es 
pecially  fowls  of  various  kinds,  but  had  no  beasts  of  burden. 
This  defect  was  doubtless  a  hindrance  to  their  advance 
ment  towards  civilized  life.  The  Mexican  Indians  dis 
played  considerable  skill  in  mechanics,  in  pottery,  and 
in  working  with  the  precious  metals;  but  they  had  no 
iron  implements.  Picture  writing  had  not  yet  developed 
into  a  real  alphabet.  In  their  elaborate  religious  system 
there  was  an  organized  priesthood,  and  great  temples 
were  constructed;  human  sacrifice  occupied  a  promi 
nent  position  in  their  worship.  Politically,  these  Indians 
were  still  in  the  tribal  state,  not  having  developed  the 
idea  of  nationality.  The  lowest  political  organization 
was  the  clan,  which  elected  its  own  council  and  chiefs. 
The  Aztecs,  whose  capital  was  the  city  of  Mexico,  con 
stituted  a  confederacy  of  three  tribes.  The  war  chief 
of  this  confederacy,  Montezuma,  had  been  elected  to  his 
position. 

The  physical  geography  of  Mexico,  Central  America,  and 
Peru  and  the  character  of  the  Indians  inhabiting  those 
countries,  went  far  toward  determining  the  nature  of  the 
Spanish  conquest.  Cortez  marched  his  forces  from  the 
coast  to  the  heart  of  Mexico  and  captured  its  capital  city 
with  comparatively  little  opposition;  and  when  the  Indiaas 


Spanish  Exploration  and  Colonization  21 

revolted  and  turned  upon  the  invaders,  they  were  subdued 
without  great  difficulty. 

Several  reasons  account  for  this  fact: — (1)  In  their  advance  from 
savagery  to  the  upper  stages  of  barbarism  these  Indians  had  be 
come  less  warlike.  (2)  Living  in  settled  communities,  they  could 
not  readily  escape  before  the  advance  of  the  Spaniards.  (3)  The 
Aztecs  held  in  subjection  several  of  the  surrounding  tribes,  and 
the  latter  were  glad  to  aid  the  Spaniards  when  promised  release 
from  Aztec  tyranny.  (4)  The  Spaniards'  horses,  armor,  and  fire 
arms  excited  superstitious  fear  among  the  Indians.  There  was  a 
Mexican  tradition  of  a  fair-faced  god  whose  coming  had  been 
predicted,  and  this  went  far  toward  securing  submission  during 
the  earlier  stages  of  the  conquest.  (5)  The  consummate  skill  of 
Cortez  in  his  negotiations  with  the  natives,  was  an  important 
factor  in  this  easy  victory.  (6)  Everywhere  the  Spanish  abol 
ished  the  practice  of  human  sacrifice,  and  this  gained  them  much 
favor  from  the  masses  of  the  people,  who  were  tired  of  its  horrors. 

Similar  experiences  awaited  the  Spaniards  who,  a  decade  later 
(1531-1533),  conquered  Peru  under  the  leadership  of  the  brothers 
Pizarro.  By  tactics  similar  to  those  of  Cortez,  they  got  possession 
of  the  country  and  seized  immense  quantities  of  treasure. 

The  success  of  Cortez  in  Mexico  excited  in  Narvaez  the  Expiora- 
ambition  to  conquer  the  region  immediately  north  of  the  North  of 
Gulf  of  Mexico.     After  a  vain  attempt  to  find,  in  northern  the  Gulf  of 
Florida,  cities  where  gold  and  food  were  abundant,  Narvaez 
and  his  men,  having  lost  their  ships,  sailed  in  extemporized 
boats  westward  on  the  Gulf.     Before  the  Texan  coast  was 
reached  Xarvaez  and  all  but  four  of  his  company  had  per 
ished.     The  survivors,  one  of  whom  was  De  Vaca,  passed 
eight  years  among  the  Indians  in  the  region  north  of 
Mexico  before  reaching  the  Spanish  settlement  on  the  Gulf 
of  California.     (See  map,  p.  17.) 

Already  stories  had  reached  the  Spaniards,  of  seven  Coronado. 
wealthy  cities  north  of  Mexico,  and  now  the  story  told  by 
De  Vaca,  revealing  the  existence  of  a  vast,  unexplored 
region  in  that  direction,  fired  the  ambition  of  Coronado. 
In  1540  Coronado's  expedition  advanced  northward  from 
a  point  on  the  Gulf  of  California.  The  seven  cities  of 
"  Cibola,"  where  gold  and  silver  were  supposed  to  exist  in 
abundance  were  soon  found  to  be  nothing  but  the  pueblos 


22 


American  History 


Spanish 
success 
and  failure. 


of  the  Zuni  Indians.  Later,  the  canon  of  the  Colorado 
River  was  reached;  then,  turning  eastward,  the  explorers 
advanced  probably  as  far  as  the  centre  of  Kansas.  But 
there  were  no  wealthy  cities  here.  Coronado  returned  to 
the  city  of  Mexico,  "very  sad,  very  weary,  completely 

worn  out  and  shamefaced." 

De  Soto  had  been  one  of 
the  conquerors  of  Peru,  and 
was  eager  to  rival  the  deeds 
of  the  Pizarros.  His  expedi 
tion,  landing  at  Tampa  Bay  in 
1539,wandered  for  three  years 
northward  into  the  foothills  of 
theAlleghanies,and  westward 
beyond  the  Mississippi  River.* 
From  each  Indian  tribe  they 
demanded  food,  slaves,  and 
guidance  to  the  land  of  gold. 
Everywhere  their  inhumanity 
to  the  natives  made  the  latter 
hostile;  the  attacks  of  the  In 
dians  and  the  hardships  of  the 
journey  wore  away  the  numbers  of  the  invaders.  Finally, 
when  they  returned  to  the  Mississippi  River,  after  having 
traversed  the  region  of  Arkansas,  De  Soto  himself  died. 
The  survivors  of  this  expedition  floated  down  the  great 
river  and  reached  Spanish  settlements  on  the  Texan  coast. 
We  note  a  great  contrast  between  the  experiences  of 
De  Soto,  Narvaez,  and  Coronado,  on  the  one  hand,  and  those 
of  Cortez  and  Pizarro  on  the  other.  The  results  in  each 
case  were  fraught  with  the  greatest  consequences,  not  only 
for  the  countries  invaded  and  for  Spain,  but  for  the  fulure 


De  Soto 

From  Espagnols  Illustres.    Madrid,  1726 


*  Pineda  (see  p.  19)  is  thought  by  some  authorities  to  have  sailed  for 
a  short  distance  up  the  Mississippi  River,  and  so  to  be  its  discoverer 
(1519).  A  river  called  Rio  de  Santo  Espiritu,  and  corresponding  in  lo 
cation  to  the  Mississippi,  is  found  on  maps  published  before  the  date  of  De 
Soto's  exploration. 


Spanish  Exploration  and  Colonization  23 

United  States  as  well.  Compare  the  conditions  that  ac 
count  for  the  easy  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru  with  con 
ditions  existing  north  of  Mexico  and  the  Gulf.  (1)  Here 
wrere  found  Indian  tribes  lower  in  the  stage  of  barbarism, 
and  consequently  more  intractable  and  warlike.  (2)  These 
Indians  could  abandon  their  villages  and,  secure  in  their 
native  forests,  could  continue  indefinitely  the  struggle 
against  the  Spaniards.  (3)  There  was  no  gold  in  this 
region,  and  consequently  the  Spanish  were  not  perma 
nently  attracted  to  it;  for  it  was  conquest,  and  not  coloniza 
tion,  that  they  were  bent  upon.  The  wealth  of  Mexico 
and  Peru  lured  all  adventurers  to  those  lands,  and  for 
them  the  slow  and  toilsome  process  of  founding  agricult 
ural  colonies  had  no  charms.*  Spanish  colonization, 
therefore,  took  but  slight  hold  upon  the  regions  now  in 
cluded  within  the  bounds  of  the  United  States. 

By  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and  Isabella  Spanish 
of  Castile,  in  1479,  the  Spanish  nation  became  consolidated.  poiicy. 
The  political  tendency  of  this  process  was  towards  the  cen 
tralization  of  the  national  government.  Moreover,  there 
was  necessity  for  a  strong  monarchy  to  enforce  order  in 
the  kingdom  and  to  push  the  wars  against  the  Moors. 
Thus  there  developed  in  Spain  a  centralized,  absolute 
monarchy;  and  absolutism  is  the  keynote  to  her  colonial 
policy.  The  royal  power  in  Spain  was  advised  and  as 
sisted  by  numerous  councils,  each  having  jurisdiction  over 
certain  matters;  so  the  acquisition  of  colonial  dependencies 
led  naturally  to  the  establishment  of  the  "Council  for  the 
Indies/'  which  had  complete  control  over  political  affairs 
in  America.  A  similar  body,  the  "India  House"  (Casa 
de  Contratacion),  controlled  all  trade  between  the  colonies  Govern- 
and  Spain.  Viceroys  and  governors  were  appointed  to 
reside  in  the  colonies;  the  military  government  of  these 
officers  was  checked  in  some  measure  by  the  authority 

*  It  may  be  said,  however,  that,  had  the  latter  been  their  ambition, 
they  still  might  have  occupied  the  more  southern  lands,  since  these  pro 
duced  the  commodities  that  were  in  most  demand  in  Europe. 


24  American  History 

of  courts  (audiencias)  that  had  administrative  as  well  as 
judicial  functions.  Self-government,  however,  existed  in  a 
small  degree  in  the  Spanish  cities  of  the  New  World ;  for 
here  there  existed  municipal  councils  composed  of  citizens 
who  were  at  first  elected,  but  who  afterward  obtained 
their  offices  by  inheritance  or  purchase. 

industry.  Industrially,  Spain's  policy  was  one  of  monopoly  and 
restriction.  Every  encouragement  was  given  to  the  min 
ing  of  gold  and  silver,  and  many  measures  were  enacted 
for  the  promotion  of  agriculture;  but  the  production  of 
certain  crops  (hemp,  flax,  saffron,  and  the  olive),  was  re- 


A  Spanish  Mission  Church 

stricted  because  these  products  were  raised  in  Spain.  In 
the  West  Indies  agriculture  was  depressed  because  of 
Spain's  restrictive  commercial  policy.  Ships  might  sail 
to  America  only  from  Seville  or  Cadiz,  and  then  only 
under  royal  license.  But  two  fleets  were  allowed  to  sail 
annually.  These  measures  limited  both  the  means  of 
transportation  and  the  market  for  agricultural  products, 
and  depression  of  prices  resulted.  For  two  centuries  these 
and  many  other  commercial  regulations  hampered  the 
trade  between  Spain  and  America.  On  the  mainland, 
however,  farming  and  grazing  flourished  and  became  the 


Spanish  Exploration  and  Colonization  25 

principal  occupation  of  a  prosperous  and  contented  popu 
lation  of  Spaniards,  Indians,  and  mixed  peoples. 

Prominent  among  the  motives  of  Columbus  and  many  Religion 
of  his  successors  in  the  New  World  was  the  Christianizing  ^n^uca 
of  the  Indians.  Both  explorers  and  conquerors  were  en 
joined  by  the  Spanish  authorities  to  convert  the  Indians. 
The  Church  was  early  established,  and  its  authority  was 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  that  of  the  State.  Schools 
and  colleges  were  also  founded.  Efforts  were  made  to  en 
force  industry  and  sobriety  among  the  Indians  and  to  pro 
tect  them  against  maltreatment  by  the  whites.  In  spite  of 
these  good  intentions  on  the  part  of  the  Spanish  Govern 
ment,  however,  the  dealings  of  their  colonists  with  the 
natives,  during  the  early  period,  were  characterized  by  the 
utmost  cruelty.  Upon  this  point,  Spanish  rule  was  abso 
lute  only  in  theory:  practically,  the  colonists  nullified  the 
regulations  of  the  home  government. 

Several  reasons  account  for  this  condition:  (1)  We  might  ex-  Relations 
pect  that  the  adventurers  who  seek  a  new  country,  bent  upon  with  the 
the  quest  for  gold,  would  be  harsh,  and  careless  of  the  rights  of  Indians- 
the  simple-minded  natives.  (2)  The  standards  of  the  sixteenth 
century  in  human  matters  were  distinctly  lower  than  the  stand 
ards  of  to-day.  (3)  The  efforts  of  many  Spanish  colonists  in 
America  to  live  without  manual  labor,  and  the  constant  demand 
from  the  authorities  in  Spain  for  "more  gold,"  led  inevitably  to 
the  establishment  of  slavery.  When  land  was  divided  among 
the  conquerors,  each  was  also  given  oversight  of  a  certain  number 
of  natives  from  whom  he  might  exact  service.  This  was  an  easy 
step  toward  slavery.  The  efforts  of  the  priest  Las  Casas  during 
half  a  century,  and  the  enactment  of  regulations  by  the  home 
government  to  mitigate  the  evils  of  Indian  slavery  were  futile. 
The  enforced  labor  of  the  natives  in  the  mines  depopulated  the 
larger  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  and  led  directly  to  the  importa 
tion  of  negro  slaves  from  Africa.  In  the  interior  of  Mexico  and 
Peru,  however,  the  climate  did  not  favor  industries  in  which 
slave  labor  was  profitable,  and  the  institution  died  out. 

Finally,  when  the  Spanish  intermarried  with  the  natives 
they  showed  their  willingness  uto  descend  from  their 
European  standard  of  civilization  and  to  affiliate  with  them 


26  American  History 

on  a  lower  plane."  There  resulted  a  compromise  in  re 
ligious  and  political  institutions  which  was  not  an  im 
provement  over  those  brought  from  the  Old  World.  We 
have  here  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  Spanish  American 
peoples  have  not  progressed  more  rapidly. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  General  accounts.     Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  27-34;  45-48. 
Fisher,  The  Colonial  Era,  16-22.     Higginson,  Larger  History  of 
the  United  States,  68-74.     Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France,  9-19. 

2.  Contemporary    accounts,     (a)  Coronado's    description    of 
the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,  in  his  letter  to  Mendoza.     Old  South 
Leaflets,  No.  20,    8-10.     (b)  Cortez's  description  of  the  city  of 
Mexico,  Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  35.     (r)  One  of  De  Soto's  com 
panions  describes  the  manner  of  his  death.  Old  South  Leaflets, 
No.  36.     (d)    De  Vaca's  description  of  his  wanderings,  Old 
South  Leaflets,  No.  39.     (e)  Hart,  Contemporaries,  I.     Cortez, 
No.  21.     Pizarro,  No.  22.     De  Soto,  No.  23.     Coronado,  No.  24 
(/)  Hart,  Source  Book,  Coronado,  6-8. 

3.  Bancroft,  I.    De  Leon,  22-24.     Ayllon  and  Gomez,  25-27. 
Narvaez  and  De  Vaca,  27-31 .   Coronado,  31-37.   De  Soto,  38-49. 

4.  Drake,  Making  of  the  Great  West.     De  Soto,  10-20.     Re 
lations  with  the  Indians,  21-28.     Coronado,  28-39.     The  In 
dians  of  New  Mexico  and  their  pueblos,  39-52. 

5.  King's  De  Soto  in  the  Land  of  the  Floridas  is  excellent, 
following  closely  one  of  the  original  narratives  of  the  expedition. 

6.  Fiske,  Discovery  of  America,  I.     Mexican  pueblos,  84-97. 
(Illustrations  of  pueblos  are  here,  and  in  Higginson,  2-9.)     In 
dian  society  in  Mexico,  97-102.     Vol.  II,  Legend  of  the  fair- 
faced  god,  234-239.     Cortez,  245-262.     Mexico  City,  262-274. 
De  Leon,  485-486.     Pineda,  486-487.     Ayllon  and  Gomez,  490- 
492.      Narvaez  and  De  Vaca,  500-502.      Coronado,  502-509. 
De  Soto,  509-510.     Magellan,  184-211.     Balboa,  365-384.     Pi 
zarro,  390-409;  421-426. 

7.  Las    Casas    and    Indian    slavery.     Fiske,    II,    chap.    11. 
Bourne,  Spain  in  America,  253-264. 

8.  For  accounts  of  Spanish  exploration  and  colonization,  see 
James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  2. 

9.  Fiction.   Wallace,  The  Fair  God.     Haggard,  Montezuma's 
Daughter. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  RIVALRY  OF  NATIONS  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH 
CENTURY 

THE  discovery  of  America  in  1492  and  the  opening  of  A  new 
the  Portuguese  route  to  India  in  1497-1498  mark  an  epoch 
in  the  world's  history.  The  new  discoveries  wrought  a  rev 
olution  in  geographical  ideas.  There  was  an  increase  of 
maritime  activity;  and  at  this  time  began  the  removal  of 
commercial  centres  from  their  old  seat  in  the  Mediter 
ranean  countries  to  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  Europe. 

When  Bartholomew  Columbus  went  to  England  in  the  The  begin- 
interests  of  his  brother,  maritime  discovery  had  received   ^ing,.°! 

J  English  ex- 

SOme  attention  in  that  country,  especially  at  the  port  of  pioration 

Bristol.  Here  resided  John  Cabot,  who,  like  Columbus,  inAmerica- 
was  a  native  of  Genoa.  In  1497  he  obtained  a  patent  from 
Henry  VII  authorizing  him  to  make  a  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic.  Cabot  was  an  experienced  navigator;  he  had 
been  on  many  voyages  and  had  travelled  as  far  eastward 
as  Mecca  in  Arabia,  where  he  had  seen  the  caravans  ar 
rive  from  India.  His  present  ambition  was  to  find  a  water 
route  by  which  the  wealth  of  the  East  might  pour  into 
English  ports. 

It  is  not  known  where  Cabot  first  saw  America — whether  The  Cabot 
at  Labrador,  Newfoundland,  or  Cape  Breton  Island.  This 
land  he  called  Cathay.  The  success  of  the  first  voyage 
led  to  a  second  in  1498,  upon  which  he  was  probably  ac 
companied  by  his  son  Sebastian.  Of  this  voyage  little  is 
positively  known,  and  nothing  is  known  concerning  the  re 
turn  of  Cabot  or  his  subsequent  history.  Henry  VII  re- 

27 


28 


American  History 


warded  him  with  payments  from  the  treasury;  and  in  the 
following  years  the  king  made  loans  to  numerous  "mer 
chants  of  Bristol  that  have  been  in  the  Newe  founde 
Lande."  The  most  direct  result  following  Cabot's  voy 
ages  was  the  encouragement  given  to  the  Newfoundland 


a*. 


NDIAN 
OCEAN 


The  Outward  Voyages  of  Great  Explorers 


French 
voyages. 


fisheries;  here  not  only  English  but  also  Portuguese, 
Spanish,  and  French  fishermen  swarmed  in  great  numbers. 
In  the  time  of  Columbus,  the  greatest  rival  of  Spain  in 
European  politics  was  France.  It  was  under  the  power 
ful  Francis  I  (the  defeated  rival  of  Charles  V  when  the 
latter  was  elected  Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire), 
that  France  first  contested  the  right  of  Spain  to  monopo 
lize  the  fruits  of  American  discovery.  French  seamen  be 
gan  to  plunder  the  Spanish  treasure  ships  as  they  returned 


Rivalry  of  Nations  29 

from  America.  One  of  these  corsairs  was  Verrazano,  a  Verrazano. 
native  of  Florence,  who  captured  vessels  that  carried  gold 
from  the  city  of  Mexico.  Francis  I  now  sent  Verrazano 
to  find  a  passage-way  to  China.  He  reached  the  coast  of 
South  Carolina  in  1524  and  proceeded  northward,  care 
fully  exploring  the  coast  as  far  as  New  Hampshire. 

Everywhere  he  searched  for  gold,  the  presence  of  which  was 
"denoted  by  the  color  of  the  ground."  As  a  result  of  this  voy 
age,  certain  contemporaneous  maps  show  the  western  coast  of 
North  America  deeply  indented  by  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
leaving  an  isthmus  in  the  latitude  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  This  en 
couraged  in  other  navigators  the  belief  in  an  easy  passage  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Delayed  by  his  European  wars  against  Charles  V,  it  was   An  at- 
ten  years  before  Francis  sent  another  explorer,  Jacques  colonize* 
Cartier,  to  explore  the  waters  lying  beyond  Newfoundland 
and  to  take  possession  of  American  territory.     The  voyages 
of  Cartier  in  1534  and  1535  carried  him  up  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  as  far  as  Montreal.     An  attempt  to  plant  a  colony 
in  this  region,  made  by  Cartier  and  Roberval  in  the  years 
1540-1543,.  was  a  failure.     With  this  event  the  French 
Government  ceased  its  activity  in  American  colonization  Cessation 
for  the  remainder  of  the  sixteenth  century.     Little  en-  acUvSyki 
couragement  had    resulted   from    the   attempts  narrated   America, 
above;  no  gold  had  been  found,  the  winter  climate  was 
severe,  and  the  Indians  were  hostile.     Moreover,  the  strug 
gle  with  Spain  in  Europe  absorbed  the  energies  of  the 
French  people,  and  when -that  was  ended  their  attention 
was  given  to  those  internal  struggles  known  as  the  Hugue 
not  wars  (1562-1598). 

The  rise  of  the  Protestants,  known  as  Huguenots,  in  France   TheHu- 
was    contemporaneous    with   the  Reformation   movements    in   guenotson 
Germany  and  England.     Persecution  and  the  beginning  of  civil   fantkf" 
war  made  the  Huguenots  look  beyond  the  Atlantic  for  a  refuge,    coast. 
A  settlement  at  Port  Royal  (South  Carolina)  in  1562  was  un 
successful,  and  in  1564  another  was  made  at  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  John's  River  in  Florida.     This  was  not  only  a  direct  insult  to 
the  Spanish  Government,  but  the  establishment  of  a  colony  at 


30 


American  History 


Spain  lost 
her  oppor 
tunity  on 
the  At 
lantic 
coast  of 
North 
America. 


for  the 
inactivity 
of  Eng 
land. 


this  point  was  a  serious  menace  to  Spanish  interests;  for  it  would 
constitute  a  base  of  operations  against  Spanish  towns  and 
treasure  fleets.*  Consequently,  at  the  very  time  when  Jean 
Ribaut  was  sailing  with  a  fleet  to  reenforce  this  colony,  a  Span 
ish  captain,  Menendez,  was  hastening  across  the  ocean  commis 
sioned  to  destroy  it  and  to  establish  in  Florida  a  permanent  mil 
itary  station  and  colony.  The  thrilling  and  bloody  story  of 
how  Menendez  accomplished  his  double  purpose,  massacring  the 
French  and  founding  St.  Augustine  in  1565  (the  oldest  settle 
ment  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States),  cannot  be  told  here. 

These  were  events  of  vital  importance  in  American 
history.  There  was  at  stake  no  less  a  matter  than  the 
occupation  by  European  nations  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 
Whose  should  it  be,  for  colonization  and  westward  ex 
pansion?  Temporarily  the  Spanish  were  in  control,  but 
they  were  destined  to  go  no  farther  in  this  direction.  Ex 
cept  in  the  extreme  west  (among  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  along  the  Pacific  coast)  Spanish  colonies  made  no 
further  progress  within  the  limits  of  the  present  United 
States.  This  was  due  partly  to  the  nature  of  the  country 
and  partly  to  the  fact  that  Spain,  in  the  closing  years  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  industrially  on  the  decline.  The 
enormous  acquisition  of  wealth  from  the  American  mines 
discouraged,  rather  than  stimulated,  sober  industry  at 
home.  Moreover,  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  and  the 
Jews,  Spain  lost  a  most  valuable  contingent  of  her  labor 
ing  population.  Consequently,  American  gold  was  sent 
abroad  to  pay  for  imported  goods,  and  other  countries 
gained  the  economic  advantage  of  supplying  her  popula 
tion,  and  that  of  her  colonies,  with  manufactures  and  lux 
uries.  Besides,  the  wars  conducted  by  Charles  V  and  Philip 
II  exhausted  Spain's  revenues  and  weakened  her  power. 

We  are  now  ready  to  ask,  why  did  English  interest  in 
American  exploration,  which  apparently  made  such  a 
promising  beginning  in  the  voyages  of  the  Cabots,  die  out 
in  the  years  that  followed?  (1)  An  immediate  reason  is 

*  Already  French  Protestant  seamen  had  plundered  and  burned 
Havana  (1555)  and  pillaged  Porto  Rico  (1559). 


Rivalry  of  Nations 


31 


found  in  the  fact  that  by  the  Cabot  voyages  neither  gold 
nor  wealthy  cities  were  discovered.  (2)  England  was  not 
at  this  time  a  commercial  nation.  Her  foreign  trade  was 
carried  on  by  foreign  merchants — those  of  Venice  and  the 
Hansa  towns.  (3) 
In  the  year  1500 
England  was  one  of 
the  backward  na 
tions  of  Europe. 
The  quickening  of 
thought  and  the  rise 
of  the  adventurous 
spirit  that  mark  the 
Renaissance  move 
ment  came  to  Eng 
land  later,  in  con 
nection  with  the 
great  events  that 
occurred  during  the 
reigns  of  Henry 
VIII  and  Eliza 
beth. 

Themiddleofthe 
sixteenth  century 
saw  the  rise  in  Eng 
land  of  a  new  inter 
est  in  America.    (1) 
Improvements  in 
the  art  of  ship 
building  gave  Englishmen  an  advantage   in   the  coming 
competition  with  other  nations.      (2)  In  the  Newfound 
land  fisheries  the  hardy  sailors  of  the  western  and  south 
ern  towns  had  received  a  training  that  gave  the  English 
people  their  " sea  legs."     (3)  The  Reformation  in  England, 
i.  <?.,  the  breach  with  the  Church  of  Rome  under  Henry  history 
VIII,  resulted  later  in  an  intense  religious  strife  between 
England   and   Spain — the  militant  arm  of   the  Church. 


Sir  Francis  Drake 
From  a  print  in  the  British  Museum 


32 


American  History 


Early 
English 
seamen 
and  their 
exploits. 


Francis 
Drake. 


English 
efforts  to 
open  com 
merce  with 
Asia. 


(4)  The  rising  commercial  and  maritime  spirit  in  Eng 
land  and  the  religious  rivalry  with  Spain  both  contributed 
toward  the  creation  of  that  "keen  national  feeling"  which 
was  a  prominent  characteristic  of  Elizabethan  times. 

The  rise  of  these  new  conditions  in  England  explains  the  in 
creasing  boldness  of  Englishmen  upon  the  high  seas.  About 
1560  John  Hawkins  began  his  slaving  voyages  from  the  west 
coast  of  Africa  to  the  West  Indies.  This  traffic  was  against 
Spanish  law,  and  a  few  years  later  he  was  attacked,  and  his  fleet 
was  badly  disabled  in  a  harbor  on  the  coast  of  Mexico.  One  of 
the  captains  of  this  fleet  was  Francis  Drake.  In  1572  Drake  com 
manded  an  expedition  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  where  he 
raided  Spanish  towns,  attacked  Spanish  vessels,  and  captured 
treasure  that  came  by  this  route  overland  from  Peru.  Here  he 
first  saw  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  he  resolved  to  sail  on  its  waters. 
Accordingly,  he  set  forth  in  1577  with  a  well-equipped  fleet  of 
five  vessels.  Once  having  passed  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  he  fol 
lowed  the  coast  northward,  plundering  vessels  and  sailing  into 
harbors  to  pick  up  stores  of  gold  and  silver.  He  sailed  as  far 
north  as  Oregon,  took  possession  of  the  country  for  England, 
calling  it  New  Albion,  and  then  crossed  the  Pacific.  He  reached 
England  safely  (1580)  with  but  one  of  his  five  vessels.  Besides 
being  one  of  the  boldest  voyages  in  American  history,  this  ex 
pedition  of  Drake  went  far  to  hasten  the  open  declaration  of 
hostilities  between  England  and  Spain  which  came  within  a  few 
years. 

Meanwhile,  the  interests  of  sober  commerce  were  press 
ing  for  recognition.  With  the  expansion  of  English  com 
merce  in  Europe,  the  desire  to  participate  in  the  trade  with 
India  and  China  became  stronger.  The  Portuguese 
monopolized  the  route  around  Africa,  and  the  Spaniards 
claimed  sole  proprietorship  of  that  around  South  America. 
Could  not  Englishmen  reach  the  East  by  a  northern  and 
hence  a  shorter  route — by  a  "north-west  passage"  ?  Such 
was  the  idea  of  Frobisher  in  sailing  into  the  waters  now 
known  as  Frobisher's  Bay  (1576-1578).  Later,  1585- 
1587,  John  Davis  made  three  similar  voyages.* 

*  It  was  not  until  1903-1906  that  Captain  Admundsen  first  sailed  a 
vessel  the  entire  distance  around  the  northern  end  of  North  America. 
See  Century  Magazine,  February,  1907,  625. 


Rivalry  of  Nations 


33 


This  enterprising  Elizabethan  age  saw  the  beginnings  Reasons 
of  English  colonial  ambition.  To  establish  colonies  in  [2hSgab~ 
America  would  further  several  objects.  (1)  In  the  minds  American 
of  Englishmen,  American  soil  sparkled  with  flakes  of  gold. 
(2)  American  colonies  would  constitute  half-way  stations 
on  the  long 
voyages  to 
Asia.  (3) 
They  would 
also  consti 
tute  bases  of 
operation 
against  Spain 
in  the  New 
World.  The 
capture  of 
Spanish  gold 
was  one 
m  cans  of 
/'putting  a 
bridle  upon 
Spain."  Thus 
might  Eng 
land  defeat 
the  European 
ambitions  of 

that  nation,  i.  e.,  the  subduing  of  Holland  and  the  possible 
conquest  of  England.  Such  were  the  motives  that  stirred 
the  first  English  colonizers. 

In  1583,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  founded  in  Newfound-  Early  at- 
land  a  colony  that  was  unfortunate  from  the  beginning; 
sickness  and  desertion  reduced  their  numbers,  and  Gilbert, 
sailing  to  England  to  obtain  help,  was  himself  lost  in  mid- 
ocean.  Raleigh,  his  half  -brother,  was  strongly  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  colonization,  and  in  1584  he  sent  an  ex 
pedition  to  make  preparations  for  the  planting  of  a  colony. 
The  region  found  was  reputed  to  be  "the  most  plentiful, 


Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert 


tion. 


34 


American  History 


Reasons 
for  failure. 


The  Span 
ish  Ar 
mada. 


sweet,  fruitful  and  wholesome  of  all  the  world,"  and  "the 
people  the  most  gentle,  loving,  and  faithful,  void  of  all 
guile  and  treason,  and  such  as  live  after  the  manner  of  the 
Golden  Age/'  Such  was  the  description  of  the  Carolina 
coast,  thereupon  named  by  Elizabeth,  Virginia.  In  1585, 
Raleigh  sent  thither  a  company  of  more  than  one  hundred 
men  under  Ralph  Lane  and  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  and  a 
colony  was  established  on  Roanoke  Island.  The  search 
for  gold  and  for  the  South  Sea  constituted  their  chief  oc 
cupation  for  a  year,  until  hunger  drove  them  to  return  to 
England.  In  1587,  Raleigh  sent  to  America  another 
colony,  including  both  men  and  women,  under  John 
White.  These,  too,  shortly  needed  help  from  home;  but 
a  threatened  Spanish  invasion,  soon  to  be  described,  pre 
vented  reinforcements  from  leaving  England,  and  when, 
in  1591,  the  relief  finally  arrived  the  colony  had  disap 
peared. 

Thus  ended  the  earliest  English  attempts  to  found  col 
onies  in  America.  To  what  was  the  failure  owing? 

(1)  Both  Raleigh  and   Gilbert   erred   in  selecting  their 
colonists ;  some  of  them  were  criminals,  and  all  were  fired 
by  a  "restless  curiosity  and  a  passion  for  adventure." 

(2)  The  search  for  gold  had  led  to  the  neglect  of  agri 
culture.     The  American  coast  did  not  furnish  sustenance 
without  cultivation,  and  the  Indians  could  not  be  de 
pended  upon  to  retain  a  friendly  spirit  toward  colonists 
who  constantly  violated  their  rights.     (3)  There  was  about 
these  attempts  at  colonization  an  air  of  romance  that  was 
characteristic  of  the  Elizabethan  period.     These  men  had 
no  practical  acquaintance  with  the  means  of  sustaining 
life  in  a  wild  country. 

While  the  events  above  described  were  in  progress,  other 
events  in  Europe  brought  to  a  culmination  the  rising  hos 
tility  between  England  and  Spain.  Philip  II  determined 
upon  the  conquest  of  England,  and  in  1588  the  Great 
Armada  sailed  with  the  purpose  of  landing  an  army  on 
the  shores  of  England.  They  were  met  in  the  Channel 


Rivalry  of  Nations 


35 


by  the  ships  of  English  seamen,  which  were  of  superior 
construction  and  fighting  power.  Their  skilful  attacks 
soon  disabled  the  Armada,  which,  sailing  into  the  North 
Sea,  escaped  around  the  British  Isles,  losing  many  of 
its  vessels,  and,  what  was  worse,  the  courage  of  its  sea 
men.  Thus 
the  maritime 
power  of  Spain 
received  a  most 
serious  blow.* 
The  moral 
effect  of  this  ^ 


Ship  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 


victory  f  upon 
the  English 
was  corres 
pondingly  pro 
found.  More 
than  ever  they 
dared  to  com 
pete  withSpain 
on  the  seas. 

The  effect  upon  American  history  is  readily  seen.    Upon  HOW  Eng- 
the  Atlantic  coast  the  English  people  were  now  free  to  fol-  l^^^~ 
low  their  commercial  and  colonizing  ambitions  unhampered  fected 
by  the  dread  of  Spanish  interference.     "Nowhere  on  the 
surface  of  'the  earth  was  there  a  region  better  fitted  for 
European  colonization.     Frenchmen  and  Spaniards  passed 
it  by  as  offering  slight  hope  of  present  gain.     A  higher 
power  reserved  it  for  the  slower,  more  patient  English 
man  and  his  kinsfolk  from  northern  Europe.  .  .  .  Their 
mission  was  to  plant  a  nation  in  the  New  World."! 

*  "  Under  the  inspiration  of  this  tremendous  victory  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  during  the  next  three  years  swarmed  with  English  cruisers,  and 
more  than  eight  hundred  Spanish  ships  fell  victims  to  their  attacks." 
Tyler,  England  in  America,  30. 

t  Add  to  this  a  second  victory,  when  a  Spanish  fleet  was  destroyed 
in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz  (1596). 

JChanning,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  110. 


36  American  History 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  The  Cabots.     Make  a  list  of  the  disputed  questions  in  the 
Cabot  history.     What  was  the  subsequent  history  of  Sebastian 
Cabot?     Fiske,   Discovery  of  America,   II,    1-16.     Higginson, 
Larger  History  of  the  United  States,  75-84.     Hart,  Contempo 
raries,  I,  No.  26.     Old  South  Leaflets,  Nos.  37,  115. 

2.  Early  French  explorers.     Higginson,  108-120.     Thwaites, 
The  Colonies,  32-36.     Fisher,  The  Colonial  Era,  20-23.     Ban 
croft,  History  of  United  States,  I,  14-17.     Fiske,  New  France 
and  New  England,  1-12. 

3.  Verrazano's  Voyage.     Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  17,    1-12. 
Fiske,  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies,  I,  58-68.     Hart,  Contempo 
raries,  I,  No.  34.     Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France,  193-199. 

4.  Carder.      Hart,  Contemporaries,  I,  No.  35.     Fiske,  New 
France  and  New  England,  13-24.     Parkman,  Pioneers,  200-215. 

5.  The    Huguenot    colony   in    Florida.     Parkman,  Pioneers, 
chaps.  7  and  8.     Bancroft,  I,  50-59. 

6.  England's  war  with  Spain  and  the  Armada.     See  histories 
of  England.     Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  35-40. 

7.  Hawkins    and    Drake.     Fiske,    Old    Virginia,    I,    15-28. 
Higginson,  84-101.     Drake's  voyage  around  the  world.     Hart, 
Contemporaries,  I,  No.  30.     Hawkins's  slave  voyages.     Ibid.,  I, 
No.  29.    Drake  on  the  California  coast.    Old  South  Leaflets,  No. 
116.    Tyler,  England  in  America,  9-13. 

8.  Gilbert  and  Raleigh.     Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  28-40.    Later 
History  of  Raleigh.     Ibid.,  I,  52-55.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  I, 
No.  33.     Higginson,  104-107;  137-140. 

9.  Who  was  Richard  Hakluyt  and  what  were  his  arguments 
in  favor  of  colonization  ?     Eggleston,  Beginners  of  a  Nation,  5-6. 
Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  41-50.     Hart,    Contemporaries,  I,   No. 
46.     Other  reasons  are  stated  in  Hart,  I,  154-157.     Bogart,  Eco 
nomic  History  of  the  United  States,  26-32. 

10.  Make  a  list  of  mistaken  ideas  about  America.     Eggleston, 
Beginners,  chap.  1. 

11.  Raleigh's  colonies.     Bancroft,  I,  69-79.     Hart,  Contempo 
raries,  I,  No.  32.     Tyler,  England  in  America,  21-33. 

12.  Further  accounts  are  found  in  James  and  Mann,  Read 
ings  in  American  History,  chap.  3. 


commerce. 


CHAPTER  IV 
VIRGINIA  AND  MARYLAND 

IN  the  period  of  one  hundred  years  which  immediately  The  new 
succeeded  the  discovery  of  America,  Spain  and  Portugal 
alone  had  become  successful  colonizing  nations;  though 
from  England,  France,  and  Holland  bold  seamen  and  am 
bitious  colonizers  had  set  forth.  It  is  evident  that  the 
sixteenth  century  brought  about  a  complete  revolution  in 
the  world's  commerce.  The  Atlantic,  and  not  the  Medi 
terranean,  was  now  the  center  of  activity;  the  nations  of 
western  Europe  took  the  place  of  the  cities  of  southern 
Europe  as  centers  of  foreign  trade.  The  new  route  to  the 
East  brought  increased  supplies  of  Eastern  products, 
which  were  thereby  much  cheapened ;  and  from  the  Ameri 
cans  now  came  new  products — fish,  furs,  dyewoods,  sugar, 
and  tobacco,  besides  untold  quantities  of  precious  metals 
and  stones. 

Commerce,  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  on  The  rise  of 
a  much  larger  scale  than  ever  before,  as  the  voyages  were 
longer.  Something  more  than  private  enterprise  was  nies. 
therefore  required,  and  in  the  case  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
this  was  supplied  by  complete  national  control  of  commer 
cial  ventures.  Each  government  endeavored  to  secure 
for  its  citizens  a  monopoly  of  trade  with  its  colonies.  In 
the  northern  European  countries,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  national  governments  were  not  ready  to  assume  such 
absolute  control  of  the  new  commerce;  hence  we  find, 
especially  in  England,  France,  and  Holland,  the  phenom 
enon  of  trading  companies  formed  in  large  numbers  during 
the  years  under  discussion.  These  companies  represented 

37 


38 


American  History 


The  Lon 
don  and 
Plymouth 
companies 
of  1606. 


combinations  of  capital,  the  investors  being  chartered 
by  the  government  and  empowered  to  carry  on  trade,  es 
tablish  colonies,  and  build  up  the  maritime  interests  of 
the  countries  concerned. 

Companies  were  formed  in  England  for  the  conduct  of 

trade  with  the  Baltic 
countries,  Russia 
(the  Muscovy  Com 
pany,  1555),  the  eas 
tern  Mediterranean 
countries  (the  Levant 
Company,  1581), 
Africa  (the  Guinea 
Company,  1588),  and 
India  (the  East  India 
Company,  1600). 
Thus  was  the  Old 
World  trade  divided 
among  the  enterpris 
ing  English  mer 
chants.*  It  was 
natural  that  they 
should  wish  in  the 

same  way  to  share  in  the  American  trade.  So  we  find 
the  organization  of  companies  for  trade  and  colonization 
in  "Virginia"  (1606),  Guiana  (1609),  Newfoundland  (1610), 
and  Bermuda  (1612). 

Under  the  charter  of  1606  two  great  companies  were 
formed  whose  purpose  was  "to  make  Habitation,  Planta 
tion,  and  to  deduce  a  colony  of  sundry  of  our  people  into 
that  part  of  America  called  Virginia,  and  other  parts  and 
territories  in  America."  f  It  was  from  the  efforts  of  these 


Grants   made   to   the   London  and  Plymouth 
Companies 


*  Similar  companies,  for  the  development  of  trade  in  the  same  geo 
graphical  regions,  were  organized  in  France  and  Holland,  and  several 
such  existed  in  Sweden  and  Denmark. 

t  For  this  charter,  see  Preston,  Documents  Illustrative  of  American 
History,  2-13.  MacDonald,  Select  Charters,  1-10. 


Virginia  and  Maryland  39 

American   companies   that   the   first   permanent   English 
colony  grew  upon  the  soil  of  the  New  World. 

Several  of  the  men  to  whom  the  charter  was  granted  by 
James  I  held  rank  and  title  in  English  official  life,  and  a  few 
were  merchants.  They  formed  two  groups:  the  first,  which 
came  to  be  known  as  the  London  Company,  might  establish  a 
colony  on  the  Atlantic  coast  between  34°  and  41°  north  latitude; 
the  other  was  known  as  the  Plymouth  Company,  and  was  to 
colonize  between  the  parallels  38°  and  45°.  Within  the  three 
degrees  of  latitude  where  these  grants  overlapped,  when  either 
company  planted  a  colony,  the  other  was  not  to  plant  another 
nearer  than  one  hundred  miles  from  it. 

What  were  the  motives   that  led   to   this   enterprise?   Themo- 
The  forces  that  moved  Englishmen  to  action  in  the  later  JJJ^J  ° 
years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  were  still  active:  England  must   founders, 
guard  herself  against  the  power  of  Spain,  and  one  sure 
way  of  doing  this  was  to  establish  military  and  naval 
stations  in  America.     The  glory  of  England,  too,  must  be 
enhanced  by  the  expansion  of  her  trade  and  by  the  pos 
session  of  foreign  lands.     The  way  to  China  would  surely 
be  discovered,  and  then  commerce  and  the  products  of 
American  mines  would  enrich  the  nation  as  Spain  had  been 
enriched. 

To  these  larger  aims  wrere  added  others  of  a  soberer  industrial 
and    more    immediately   practical    character:     (1)    The  co?oniSJ° 
commercial    activity   which   would    be   fostered   by   the  tion. 
possession   of  colonies   was   expected   to  create  a  great 
merchant  marine;  this,  in  turn,  must  increase  England's 
naval  strength.     (2)  England  would  be  more  independent 
and  self-reliant  if  the  naval  stores  which  she  then  obtained 
from  the  Baltic  countries  could  be  furnished  by  her  own 
colonies.     (3)  Many  other  products  which  England  was 
obliged  to  import  might  be  produced  in  those  colonies; 
among  these  were  glass,  soap,  and  tropical  products,  such 
as  silk,  spices,  and  wine.     On  the  other  hand,  England 
was  manufacturing  a  surplus  of  woollen  goods,  and  these 
might    be    exchanged   for   the   articles    just    mentioned. 
Thus,  it  was  argued,  Englishmen  would  not  need  to  send 


40 


American  History 


coin  abroad  and  their  wealth  would  grow  accordingly. 
(4)  An  economic  condition  had  arisen  in  England  which 
demanded  an  outlet  for  surplus  population.  The  con 
dition  of  agricultural  laborers,  especially,  had  changed  for 
the  worse;  for  while  prices  were  increasing,  with  the  influx 
of  large  quantities  of  the  precious  metals,  there  had  been 

no  corresponding 
rise  in  wages.  At 
this  time,  too,  many 
farmers  were  con 
verting  their  grain 
fields  into  sheep 
pastures  to  meet  the 
great  demand  for 
wool;  this  decreased 
the  demand  for  labor. 
In  this  enumeration 
of  the  motives  that 
lay  behind  the  colon 
izing  movement  of 
which  the  London 
and  Plymouth  com 
panies  were  the  out 
come,  we  recognize  the  features  of  a  "practical  commer 
cial  undertaking."  We  may  add  to  these  the  religious 
purpose,  more  constantly  stated  than  acted  upon,  of  "prop 
agating  the  Christian  Religion  to  such  People,  as  yet  live 
in  Darkness  and  miserable  Ignorance  of  the  true  Knowl 
edge  and  worship  of  God." 

Conditions        In  1607,  the  London  Company  sent  to  Virginia  120 
in^toefirst  men  as  colonists.     Jamestown,  where  they  settled,  was 
settlement,   situated   on   a  small,   sandy  peninsula   jutting  into  the 
James    River   from    its    north   shore;  it  was,  therefore, 
"low,  damp,  and  malarious."     Add   to  these  disadvan 
tages   the  hostility   of  the  Indians,  and  we  see  the  un 
favorable  circumstances  under  which  the  enterprise  was 
launched. 


Early  Settlements  in  Virginia  and  Maryland 
Dots  indicate  the  location  of  plantations  on  the  James  river 


Virginia  and  Maryland  41 

But  this  was  not  all.  The  scheme  under  which  the  new  Defects  of 
colony  was  to  "be  managed  proved  to  be  impractical.  ^Jf™" 
Complete  control  of  both  companies  was  placed  by  the 
charter  in  the  hands  of  a  council  appointed  by  the  King  and 
resident  in  England.  The  immediate  government  of  the 
colony  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  council,  also  appointed 
by  the  King,  consisting  of  thirteen  colonists.  This  body 
had  a  president,  but  the  first  to  occupy  that  office — Wing- 
field — proved  his  incapacity  for  executive  work,  and  the 
result  was  jealousy,  dissension,  and  all  the  evils  that  accrue 
when  weak  men  in  a  hazardous  position  lack  a  leader  who 
can  exercise  firm  control.  There  was  a  leader  in  the  colony, 
however,  and  gradually  the  direction  of  matters  fell  into 
his  hands.  John  Smith,  "the  one  energetic  and  capable 
man  in  these  first  years,"  compelled  the  men  to  labor;  for, 
he  said,  "he  that  will  not  worke  shall  not  eat,  unless  by 
sicknesse  he  be  disabled."  He  skilfully  obtained  corn 
from  the  Indians  when  the  settlers  were  starving,  and  he 
compelled  the  systematic  planting  of  corn.  He  maintained 
the  military  strength  of  Jamestown  by  drilling  the  men  and 
building  fortifications. 

The  instructions  of  the  London  Company  to  the  settlers  included 
the  following:  "You  must  observe  if  you  can  whether  the  river 
on  which  you  plant  doth  spring  out  of  mountains  or  out  of  lakes. 
If  it  be  out  of  any  lake  the  passage  to  the  other  sea  [the  Pacific 
Ocean]  will  be  the  more  easy.  ..."  Following  these  instructions 
Smith  made  a  series  of  explorations  up  Chesapeake  Bay,  the 
Potomac,  and  other  rivers  of  Virginia.  His  map  of  Virginia  be 
came  the  authoritative  map  of  this  region  for  more  than  a 
century. 

After  Smith's  departure  for  England  (1609),  conditions  Reorgan- 
in  the  colony  grew  worse.     Their  numbers  fell  from  more  ization- 
than  600  to  60,  and  these  were  abandoning  Jamestown 
when  they  were  met  by  a  ship  from  England  bringing 
reinforcements  and,  what  was  as  important,  a  governor, 
Lord  Delaware,  vested  with   ample  powers  to  rule  the 
colony.     There  had  been  (1609),  a  reorganization  of  the 
London  Company  under  a  new  charter.     Instead  of  the 


42 


American  History 


Tobacco. 


The  Lon 
don  Com 
pany's 
scheme  for 
profits. 


local  council,  the  colony  was  now  under  the  autocratic- 
rule  of  a  governor  appointed  by  the  council  in  England. 
Under  this  charter  the  limits  of  the  land  grant  were  made 
two  hundred  miles  each  way  along  the  coast  from  Point 
Comfort  and  extending  "up  into  the  land,  throughout, 
from  sea  to  sea,  west  and  north-west."  (See  map,  p.  38.) 
In  1612,  the  second  charter  was  superseded  by  a  tnird, 
under  which  the  Company  was  given  complete  control 
over  its  colony. 

The  high  price  of  tobacco  in  England  and  Holland  made 
labor  six  times  as  remunerative  when  devoted  to  that 
product  as  when  applied  to  the  raising  of  grains.  More 
over,  tobacco  was  less  bulky  than  other  products  and  con 
sequently  less  expensive  to  ship.  The  systematic  culti 
vation  of  tobacco  began  in  1612,  and  the  success  of  the 
venture  gave  the  colony  a  sure  economic  basis  and  greatly 
encouraged  its  settlement. 

The  members  of  the  London  Company  expected  to 
make  a  profit  from  their  investment,  (1)  by  selling  com 
modities  to  the  colonists,  (2)  by  selling  at  a  profit  what 
ever  the  colonists  produced,  (3)  by  the  collection  of  duties 
upon  goods  shipped  into  the  colony  by  other  traders. 
In  order  that  the  second  source  of  income  might  be  realized, 
all  products  raised  in  the  colony  must  be  put  into  a  com 
mon  storehouse;  from  this  and  from  supplies  sent  over  by 
the  Company,  the  inhabitants  were  to  receive  their  main 
tenance.  If  any  surplus  product  remained  this  was  to  be 
the  Company's  profit.  Since  under  this  plan  there  was  no 
individual  ownership  of  land  or  of  products,  we  have  a 
true  "plantation"  system:  the  colonists  were  servants  or 
laborers  under  the  authority  of  the  Company,  whose  work 
was  supervised  by  overseers.  The  system  was  intended 
as  a  temporary  measure  only,  to  be  in  operation  while  the 
colony  was  being  firmly  established.  Experience  proved 
that  it  was  a  direct  inducement  for  the  lazy  and  the  shift 
less  to  become  dependents  rather  than  self-supporting 
members  of  the  colony.  In  1614  Governor  Dale  began 


Virginia  and  Maryland  43 

the  abolition  of  this  communal  system  by  assigning  to 
some  of  the  men  three  acres  apiece  which  they  were  to 
hold  as  tenants  and  upon  which  they  might  raise  enough 
for  their  support. 

When  the  London  Company's  "plantation"  method  of  control  The  land 
in  the  colony  gave  way,  some  $2,000,000  had  been  expended,  and  system  in 
very  small  returns  had  been  realized  upon  the  investment. 
Henceforth,  settlers  were  regularly  given  grants  of  land.  This 
came  about  in  several  ways:  (1)  Settlers  who  had  labored  for 
the  Company  a  certain  number  of  years  were  entitled  to  100  acres 
of  land  as  a  dividend.  (2)  Investors  in  the  Company's  stock 
(called  "adventurers")  were  entitled  to  the  same  amount  of 
land  for  each  share  purchased,  the  shares  being  worth  £12,  10  s. 
each.  (3)  Large  grants  were  made  to  individuals  on  condition 
of  their  transporting  to  America  servants  and  materials  for  the 
cultivation  of  an  estate  or  "hundred."  (4)  Any  colonist  or 
any  "adventurer"  who  should  bear  the  expense  of  transporting 
a  laborer  to  the  colony  (provided  he  remained  three  years)  was 
entitled  to  fifty  acres  of  land  immediately  and  as  much  later. 
This  was  called  a  "head  right."  In  these  ways  the  land  of  Vir 
ginia  came  finally  to  be  held  under  private  ownership — a  most 
important  fact  in  the  economic  development  of  the  colony. 

The  year  1619  is  remarkable  in  the  history  of  Virginia.   Theim- 
In  that  year  arrived  the  first  ship  load  of  young  women,   jJJ^JJj^ 
who  became  the  wives  of  settlers.     We  see  here  the  dis-  and  slaves, 
tinct  recognition  of  the  value  of  the  home  as  an  element 
in  colonization.     The  same  year  there  was  brought  to 
Virginia  a  cargo  of  slaves.     The  number  of  slaves  did  not 
increase  very  rapidly  at  first,*  since  the  demand  for  labor 
ers  to  clear  the  forests  and  to  care  for  the  tobacco  crop  was 
largely  satisfied  through  the  employment  of  indentured 
servants.    These  came  from  several  classes:   (1)  There  was 
a  surplus  of  laborers  in  England;  consequently,  many  poor 
people  had  their  passage  to  America  paid  by  planters  and 
in  return  bound  themselves  to  terms  of  service,  generally  in- 
extending  four  or  six  years.     (2)  Owing  to  hard  conditions 
of  life  in  England,  vagabonds  and  beggars  were  numerous 
and  troublesome.     (3)  Again,  the  penal  laws  of  England 

*  In  1648  there  were  but  300  slaves  in  Virginia,  when  the  whites 
numbered  15,000  and  the  annual  export  of  tobacco  was  1,500,000  Ibs. 


44 


American  History 


were  extremely  harsh  and  the  prisons  overflowed  with  con 
victs.  These,  together  with  the  vagabonds  and  the  child 
waifs  of  London's  streets  were  transported  to  America  on 
the  order  of  the  authorities,  becoming  indentured  servants. 
Many  of  the  servants  were  of  good  character;  some  were 
well  educated;  others  were  6f  the  worst  sort;  the  great 
majority  probably  became  useful  citizens  upon  the  term 
ination  of  their  terms  of  service. 


f 


Jamestown  in  1622 

From  a  contemporary  Dutch  print 

The  Lon-          The  year  1619  also  saw  the  establishment  of  the  system 
pany  and"     of  representative  government  in  Virginia.     The  London 
representa-   Company  was  a  commercial  corporation;  but  under  the 
ernment.      charters  of  1609  and  1612  it  was  vested  with  powers  of 
government  over  its  colony.*     In  1609,  there  were  more 
than  six  hundred  stockholders,  and  this  number  was  later 
increased  by  the  accession  of  several  hundred  merchants 
*  England  and  other  European  countries  have,  within  recent  years, 
chartered  commercial  companies  and  granted  to  them  powers  of  govern 
ment  over  newly  settled  regions.     Examples  are  found  in  the  British 
East  Africa  and  British  South  Africa  companies  and  the  German  West 
Africa  Company.     At  many  points  the  partition  of  Africa  within  recent- 
years  resembles  the  process  followed  in  the  early  history  of  America. 


Virginia  and  Maryland  45 

and  craftsmen  of  London.  Then,  by  the  charter  of  1612, 
the  stockholders  were  given  the  right  to  hold  weekly  meet 
ings,  besides  four  "general  courts"  each  year  for  the  elec 
tion  of  officers.  Now,  it  happened  that  among  the  stock 
holders  were  many  influential  men  of  liberal  views  who 
were  opposed  to  the  policy  of  James  I  in  the  government 
of  England;  to  these  men  the  meetings  of  the  London 
Company  gave  opportunity  for  free  discussion  and  sharp 
criticism  of  the  royal  policy.  In  1618,  the  Company 
ordered  that  the  authority  of  the  governor  in  Virginia 
should  be  limited  by  a  council  (composed  of  councillors 
selected  by  the  Company),  and  a  representative  body 
which  took  the  name  House  of  Burgesses.  The  latter 
was  composed  of  two  burgesses  elected  by  popular  vote 
from  each  plantation  or  settlement  (eleven  in  number), 
and  met  first  in  1619. 

King  James  naturally  disliked  the  Company;  enemies  The 
of  the  Company  in  England  criticised  it  for  mismanage-  ^nulled, 
ment  of  the  colony;  so,  in  1624,  the  King  caused  his  at 
torney-general  to  bring  suit  against  it,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  court  declared  the  charter  void.     The  Company 
then  ceased  to  exist,  and  thenceforth  the  King  appointed 
the  governor.     The  House  of  Burgesses  did  not  pass  out 
of  existence,  but  continued  throughout  colonial  history. 

During  the  fifteen  years  succeeding  the  overthrow  of  Prosperity 
the  London  Company,  Virginia  increased  rapidly  in  popu-  in  virginia' 
lation.  The  tobacco  industry  became  the  permanent 
basis  of  prosperity;  it  created  a  demand  for  labor  which 
brought  thousands  of  poor  people  to  the  colony,  while  the 
ease  of  acquiring  land  was  an  inducement  for  the  migra 
tion  of  an  intelligent  and  progressive  element  who  became 
planters.  Population  spread  rapidly  up  the  broad  rivers, 
because  tobacco  exhausted  the  soil ;  laws  intended  to  com 
pel  the  building  of  cities  were  disregarded ;  and  the  broad 
waterways  of  Virginia  became  lined  with  plantations  at 
whose  wharves  ocean-going  vessels  could  discharge  and 
receive  cargoes. 


46 


American  History 


Balti 
more's 
efforts  to 
colonize. 


MARYLAND 

Sir  George  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore,  a  man  of  ability 
and  of  considerable  prominence  during  the  reign  of  James 
I,  had  been  a  member  of  the  London  Company.     His  in 
terest  in  colonization  was  shown  when,  in  1621,  he  at 
tempted  unsuccessfully  to  found  a  colony  on  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland.*     He  then  attempted   to  settle   in  Vir 
ginia,  but  because  he  was  a 
Roman   Catholic,   life    there 
was  made  unpleasant  for  him, 
and  he  returned  to  England. 
He  now   (1632)  sought   and 
obtained  a  grant  of  land  north 
of  Virginia,  extending  to  the 
fortieth    degree    of    latitude, 
where   he   could   be   free  to 
found  his  colony.     He  died 
shortly  before  the  patent  was 
executed,  but  his  son   Cecil 
at  once  took  up  his  father's 
work  and  founded  Maryland, 
named  in  honor  of  the  Queen, 
Henrietta  Maria. 

Physical  The  first  settlement  in  Maryland  was  at  St.  Mary's  on 

fn^ary-"8  Chesapeake  Bay  in  1634.  The  physical  features  of  Mary 
land,  land  resemble  closely  those  of  Virginia;  in  both,  the  mild 
climate,  rich  soil,  and  level  lands  stretching  back  to  the 
foothills  of  the  mountains  furnished  ideal  conditions  in 
which  to  build  an  agricultural  colony.  Moreover,  the 
wide-mouthed  rivers  and  the  many  bays  and  inlets  gave 

*  The  project  of  colonizing  Newfoundland  reminds  us  of  Gilbert's 
efforts  some  forty  years  previous.  Englishmen  had  still  to  learn  that 
the  climate  of  these  coasts  was  much  colder  than  that  of  European 
countries  in  the  same  latitude.  Newfoundland  is  directly  west  of 
northern  France  and  southern  England,  and  Jamestown  in  Virginia 
corresponds  in  latitude  to  northern  Africa.  Hence  the  expectation  that 
Virginia  should  produce  semi-tropical  products. 


George  Calvert,  First  Lord  Baltimore 

After  a  painting  by  Daniel  Mytens. 


Virginia  and  Maryland  47 

such  freedom  of  access  to  the  interior  that  here,  as  in  Vir-  The  divi- 
ginia,  large  plantations  were  laid  out.     Tobacco  was  at  iand 
first  the  staple  product,  and  here,  too,  it  was  planted  in 
excess,  and  the  value  of  the  plant  fell  very  low. 

Distinct  encouragement  was  given  to  the  formation  of 
large  plantations.  An  emigrant  who  came  to  Maryland 
bringing  twenty  able-bodied  men  well  armed  for  defence 
was  given  a  large  grant  of  land — not  less  than  1,000  acres. 
Many  estates  existed,  each  containing  thousands  of  acres. 
Another  law  had  the  opposite  tendency,  in  providing  that 
every  indentured  servant  (these  were  especially  numerous 
in  Maryland),  was  entitled  to  fifty  acres  at  the  end  of  his 
term  of  service.  Thus  many  of  the  large  estates  became 
broken  up. 

Maryland  was  the  earliest  successful  colony  under  a  Thegov- 
single  proprietor.  The  authority  vested  in  the  proprietor 
of  Maryland  greatly  exceeded  that  previously  given  to  any 
grantee  of  land  in  America.  He  was,  in  theory,  the  ab 
solute  lord  of  his  colony;  his  authority  being  limited  by 
the  requirement  that  his  government  should  be  in  con 
formity  with  the  laws  of  England  and  that  he  should  yield 
allegiance  to  the  King.  All  grants  of  land  proceeded 
from  him.  Lord  Baltimore  did  not  personally  visit  the 
colony,  but  appointed  a  governor  instead.  The  early 
governors  were  of  the  Baltimore  family,  and  this  con 
tributed  to  the  success  of  the  colony. 

The  rights  of  the  proprietor  were  limited  by  a  pro-  Growth  of 
vision  of  the  charter  requiring  that  the  laws  of  the  colony  ta[fyjeas_n 
should  be  made  "by  and  with  the  advice,  assent  and  ap-  sembiy. 
probation  of  the  freemen  of  the  said  province,  or  the  greater 
part  of  them,  or  of  their  delegates  or  deputies."     The 
earliest  assembly  summoned  by  the  governor  in  accordance 
with  this  provision  was  in  the  nature  of  a  primary  assembly, 
being  attended  by  as  many  of  the  freemen  of  the  colony  as 
found  it  convenient.     In  subsequent  years,  as  settlements 
and   plantations   became  more  scattered,   comparatively 
few  of  the  freemen  attended;  some  sent  proxies,  that  is, 


48 


American  History 


Religious 
conditions 
in  the 
colony. 


delegated  their  votes  to  those  who  did  attend.  Later, 
deputies  were  elected  to  the  assembly  from  the  different 
settlements,  called  hundreds.  Thus  came  about  a  truly 
representative  system. 

An  important  motive  in  the  settlement  of  Maryland  was 
the  desire  of  Lord  Baltimore  to  establish  a  place  of  refuge 
for  Roman  Catholics,  who  were  persecuted  in  England. 
He  was,  of  course,  desirous  to  make  the  exercise  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith  perfectly  free  in  his  colony.  It  was 
evidently  impracticable  to  exclude  other  religions,  even 
had  he  desired  to  do  so.  From  the  beginning  he  encour 
aged  Protestant  settlers  to  migrate  to  Maryland;  for  he 
saw  that  otherwise  there  would  not  be  sufficient  numbers 
to  insure  its  success.  He  also  exerted  his  influence  to 
bring  about  peaceful  relations  between  the  adherents  of 
different  faiths;  religious  dissension  might  lead  to  the  for 
feiture  of  the  charter  and  thus  to  the  financial  ruin  of  the 
proprietor.  It  is  evident  that  Lord  Baltimore  was  not  the 
founder  of  religious  toleration  as  a  principle;  but  that  he 
endeavored,  in  a  broad-minded  way,  to  find  a  practical 
solution  for  the  situation  as  it  existed  in  his  colony. 


SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Virginia.     Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  65-77.     Lodge,  Short 
History  of  the  English  Colonies,  1-15.     Fisher,  The  Colonial 
Era,  30-48. 

2.  The  motives  for  colonization.     Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  44- 
50.     Eggleston,   Beginners  of  a  Nation,   73-86;  89-91.     Ban 
croft,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  84r-85. 

3.  Fiske's  Old  Virginia,  I.     The  early  life  of  John  Smith,  80- 
91.     His  relations   with   Pocahontas,    110-111;    168-173.     His 
services   to   the  colony,    130-143;    152-159.     Tobacco   and   its 
cultivation,  174-177;  231.    The  first  assembly,  185-188. 

4.  Eggleston,  Beginners.    The  planting  of  Jamestown,  25-31. 
Estimate  of  Smith  and  his  writings,  31-40.     Dale  and  other 
governors,  40-59. 

5.  Hart,  Contemporaries,  I.    The  first  settlers,  No.  61.     Ac- 


Virginia  and  Maryland  49 

counts  by  Smith  and  Wingfield,  Nos.  62,  63.  Pocahontas, 
No.  64.  The  first  assembly,  No.  65.  Accounts  of  Virginia, 
Nos.  66,  67. 

6.  Bancroft  tells  the  story  of  Virginia  in  detail  in  Vol.  I,  chaps. 
6,  7,  and  8.     See  also,  Drake,  Making  of  Virginia  and  the  Middle 
Colonies,  31-65. 

7.  Maryland.     Fisher,  Colonial  Era,  62-68.     Thwaites,  The 
Colonies,    81-84.     Lodge,    Short    History,    93-99.     Eggleston, 
Beginners,  240-251.     Drake,  Making  of  Virginia  and  the  Middle 
Colonies,  66-76. 

8.  Calvert's  history,  motives,  and  early  attempts  to  colonize. 
Eggleston,  220-234.     Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  255-265. 

9.  Father  White's  account  of  the  first  settlement.     Hart,  Con 
temporaries,  I,  No.  73. 

10.  To  what  extent  and  in  what  ways  did  Roman  Catholics 
suffer  disabilities  in  England  under  James  I  and  Charles  I  ?     See 
Histories  of  England. 

11.  Give  reasons  for  the  variation  in  climate  of  western  Eu 
rope  and  eastern  America  in  the  same  latitudes. 

12.  Make   a   comparison   of   the   London   Company   and   a 
Western  railroad  company  of  to-day  upon  the  following  points: 
Charter,  "adventurers,"  land  grant,  transportation  of  settlers, 
expected  sources  of  profit. 

13.  How  many  of  the  motives  enumerated  on  pp.  39-40  are  still 
active  in  English  colonial  policy? 

14.  Does  the  amount  of  coin  in  a  country  measure  its  wealth  ? 

15.  What  measures  would  men  take  to-day  for  the  protection 
of  health  in  camping  or  settling  in  a  new  region  similar  to  that  of 
Virginia  ? 

16.  See  James   and   Mann,  Readings   in  American  History, 
chap.  4. 

17.  The  coming  of  women  to  Virginia  is  pictured  in  a  novel, 
To  Have  and  to  Hold,  by  Mary  Johnston;  the  same  author 
portrays  the  life  of  indentured  servants  in  Prisoners  of  Hope. 
See  also,  Goodwin,  The  Head  of  a  Hundred.     Sir  Christopher. 


CHAPTER  V 


The  spirit 
of  the 
Pilgrim 
Fathers. 


NEW  ENGLAND 

ONE  of  the  familiar  stories  of  American  history  is  that 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers:  the  persecutions  they  suffered  in 
England  on  account  of  their  religion;  their  flight  from  that 
country;  their  residence  in  Holland;  and  the  voyage,  first 
to  Plymouth  in  England  and  then  to  the  new  Plymouth  in 
America.  The  spirit  of  the  Pilgrims  appears  constantly 
in  the  course  of  their  history  as  written  by  William  Brad 
ford,  one  of  their  leaders.  He  speaks,  for  example,  of 
their  "valewing  peace  &  their  spirituall  comforte  above 
any  other  riches  whatsoever."  Again,  after  a  residence  of 
twelve  years  in  Holland,  when  the  question  of  removing 
to  America  was  debated,  Bradford  summarized  the  con 
clusion  of  the  whole  matter  as  follows:  "It  was  answered, 
that  all  great  &  honourable  actions  are  accompanied  with 
great  difficulties,  and  must  be  both  enterprised  and  over 
come  with  answerable  courages.  It  was  granted  ye 
dangers  were  great,  but  not  desperate;  the  difficulties  wrere 
many,  but  not  invincible.  For  though  their  were  many 
of  them  likly,  yet  they  were  not  cartaine;  it  might  be 
sundrie  of  ye  things  feared  might  never  befale;  others  by 
providente  care  &  ye  use  of  good  means,  might  in  a  great 
measure  be  prevented;  and  all  of  them,  through  ye  help  of 
God,  by  fortitude  and  patience,  might  either  be  borne,  or 
overcome." 

The  Pilgrims  were  in  Holland  during  the  twelve  years' 
truce  between  that  country  and  Spain  which  began  in  1609. 

50 


New  England 


51 


The  possible  renewal  of  war,  as  that  period  drew  toward 
its  end,  was  a  menace  to  their  comfort  and  even  to  their 
lives.     But  probably  the  most  weighty  consideration  which 
determined  the  departure  from  Leyden  was  their  desire 
to  preserve  the  integrity  of  their  little  community  and  its 
peculiar  faith.     What  wTas  to  them  "of  all  sorrows  most 
heavie  to  be  borne,  was  that  many  of  their  children,  .  .  . 
were  drawne  awaye  by 
evill  examples  into  ex 
tra  vagante&  dangerous 
courses,  getting  y6  raines 
off   their    neks,  &    de 
parting  from  their  par 
ents.  ...  So  that  they 
saw  their   posteritie 
would  be  in  danger  to 
degenerate    &   be  cor 
rupted." 

The    stormy   voyage 
of  the  Mayflower  carried 

the    Pilgrims  farther  Firsfc  geal  of  plymouth  Colony 

north  than  they  had  ex 
pected  to  go;  for  their  grant  of  land   had  been  obtained 
from   the  London  Company,  and  they  were  to  settle  in  Tne  Mav- 
"  the  northern  parts  of  Virginia."     Because  of  this  change  compact, 
in  location,  certain  persons  of  their  party  threatened  to  do 
as  they  pleased  after  landing;  and  this  led  to  the  adop 
tion,  aboard    the    Mayflower,  of   the   famous  Compact.* 
In  this  document  the  signers  promised  "all  due  submis 
sion  and  obedience"  to  the  laws  which  should  be  made 
by  this  "civill  body  politick." 

The  bitter  experiences  of  the  Virginia  settlers  in  the  fight 
against  hostile  nature  were  repeated  at  Plymouth;  but  the  coun- 

*  Similar  compacts  were  adopted  by  other  groups  of  settlers  in  the 
New  England  colonies,  under  similar  circumstances.  The  Compact  re 
mained  the  basis  of  Plymouth  government  until  the  colony  was  united 
with  Massachusetts  (1691). 


52 


American  History 


Governors 
Carver  and 
Bradford. 


The  com 
mon  fund. 


The  col 
ony's  slow 
growth. 


try  was  healthful  and  the  climate  not  greatly  different  from  that 
of  England,  so  that  the  Pilgrims  became  acclimated  more  read 
ily  than  those  who  settled  in  the  South.  Among  those  who  died 
during  the  first  winter  was  William  Carver,  their  first  Governor. 
He  was  succeeded  by  William  Bradford,  the  historian  of  the 
colony,  who  occupied  that  office  for  about  thirty  years.  In  their 
relations  with  the  Indians  the  Pilgrims  wrere  fortunate.  A 
pestilence  had  greatly  thinned  the  Indian  population  of  this  re- 


jfrra  a/orCT 


one 


Signature  'of  Governor  Bradford 

gion,  and  with  their  nearest  neighbors  the  settlers  contracted  a 
peace  treaty  that  lasted  many  years. 

The  Pilgrims  were  too  poor  to  pay  the  expense  of  their  trans 
portation  and  the  cost  of  their  maintenance  while  establishing 
the  colony,  and  had  consequently  entered  into  partnership  with 
certain  merchants  of  London  who  furnished  the  necessary  cap 
ital.  In  order  to  secure  funds  from  which  dividends  (and  ulti 
mately  the  principal  of  the  debt)  might  be  paid  to  the  "ad 
venturers"  or  capitalists,  a  system  was  adopted  similar  to  that 
set  up  in  Virginia.  All  land  was  held  in  common.  The  surplus 
product  of  labor  (grain,  furs,  fish,  lumber)  was  put  into  a  com 
mon  store.  Even  among  the  Pilgrims,  the  system  was  not  a 
success;  there  were  constant  disputes  between  the  colonists  and 
the  adventurers,  and  the  incentive  to  individual  effort  was  dis 
tinctly  increased  by  the  abolition  of  the  common  store  and  the 
assignment  of  separate  tracts  of  land  within  a  few  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  colony. 

Plymouth  colony  did  not  grow  rapidly,  having  in  1630 
but  three  hundred  inhabitants.  Gradually  new  towns  * 
were  founded,  until  in  1643  there  were  ten  altogether,  and 
the  population  exceeded  twenty-five  hundred.  This  slow 
ness  of  growth  is  accounted  for  by  the  poverty  of  the  soil, 
which  was  cultivated  with  difficulty,  and  the  poverty  of 
the  people,  who  could  not  afford  to  import  laborers.  Be 
sides,  the  religious  exclusiveness  of  the  Pilgrims  was  a  bar 
to  their  increase;  for  the  number  of  their  sect  in  England 
at  this  time  was  exceedingly  small.  It  was  because  of  the 

*  Among  these  were  Duxbury,  Taunton,  Barnstable,  and  Nausett, 


New  England  53 

poverty  of  the  people  that  Plymouth  colony  established 
no  system  of  public  schools  before  1670. 

At  the  beginning  the  "freemen"  of  this  colony  gathered  Thegov- 
in  mass  meetings,  decided  upon  the  laws,  and  elected  the  p™mouth> 
Governor  and  his  " assistants/'.  The  freemen  were  the  colony, 
original  signers  of  the  Compact  and  such  other  persons 
as  they  voted  to  admit  to  the  privilege  of  participating  in 
the  government.     When  new  towns  were  founded,   the 
people  of  these  were  given  the  authority  to  control  their 
local  affairs.     The  meeting  of  all  the  fre.emen  in  the  colony 
now  became  inconvenient,  and  each  town  elected  (1639)  its 
"deputies"  wrho  represented  it  in  the  "general  court,"  or 
legislative  body,  of  the  colony.     Thus  grew  representative 
government  in  Plymouth  colony. 

A  review  of  English  history  in  this  period  will  make  The  rise  of 
clear  the  position  occupied  by  the  Pilgrims  and  by  that 
larger  body  of  Puritans  who  first  founded  the  great  colony 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  and  later  filled  all  New  England 
with  a  sturdy  population.  By  the  Reformation  move 
ment  in  England  there  came  about  that  separation  from 
Papal  authority  which  occurred  under  Henry  VIII 
(1509-1547),  and  the  changes  in  doctrine  and  ceremonies 
that  were  made  under  this  monarch  and  his  successor, 
Edward  VI.  When  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne,  in  1558, 
a  large  part  of  the  English  people  were  still  Roman  Cath 
olics  ;  but  it  soon  became  certain  that  the  English  church 
would  not  return  to  its  allegiance  to  Rome.  Within  this 
church,  a  great  question  remained  unsettled:  how  far 
should  the  changes  of  the  Reformation  movement  go? 
Gradually,  two  parties  were  formed — the  Conservatives, 
who  were  content  with  what  had  been  accomplished,  and 
the  Puritans,  who  would  carry  the  church  farther  away 
from  its  former  position.  The  Puritan  belief  represented 
a  protest  against  the  forms  and  ceremonies  that  were  so 
prominent,  not  only  in  the  religious  but  also  in  the 
political  and  social  life  of  the  times.  They  wished 
the  Bible  to  be  the  sole  guide  in  church  discipline  and 


54 


American  History 


Puritans 
and  Sep 
aratists. 


The  policy 
of  Charles. 


ritual.  They  would  "purify"  the  service  of  certain 
ceremonies  that  seemed  to  them  not  specifically  com 
mended  by  the  Scriptures:  such  were  the  ceremony  of 
the  mass,  the  use  of  vestments,  the  sign  of  the  cross  in 
baptism,  and  the  use  of  the  ring  in  the  marriage  ceremony. 
In  the  matter  of  church  government,  the  body  of  Puri 
tans  did  not  like  the  official  importance  assigned  to 
bishops,  and  they  would  give  greater  weight  to  the  opinion 
of  the  laity. 

Upon  this  question  of  church  government,  however,  the 
Puritans  themselves  did  not  agree.  The  greater  number 
had  no  desire  to  withdraw  from  the  Church  of  England. 
They  believed  in  an  established  state  church  to  which  the 
government  should  enforce  conformity — though  they  re 
fused  to  conform  when  their  own  opinions  were  not  the 
rules  to  be  enforced.  A  smaller  number  of  Puritans  as 
sumed  a  radical  position  in  rejecting  entirely  the  belief  in  a 
state  church.  These  separated  themselves  from  the 
Church  of  England  and  formed  independent  church  bodies. 
Denying  the  right  of  the  government  to  rule  their  churches, 
they  established  the  rule  of  the  congregation.  Such  were 
the  Separatists,  or  Independents,  and  it  was  from  this  body 
that  the  Pilgrims  came. 

The  despotically  inclined  James  I  (1603-1625)  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son  Charles  I,  who,  in  his  attempts  to  rule 
arbitrarily,  dissolved  Parliament  three  times  within  four 
years  after  his  accession  to  the  throne.  In  the  reign  of 
James  the  Puritans  were  not  subjected  to  more  than  oc 
casional  punishment  for  their  stubbornness.  The  Separ 
atists  were  more  severely  treated.  The  declaration  of 
James  concerning  all  dissenters — "I  shall  make  them  con 
form  themselves  or  I  will  harry  them  out  of  the  land,  or 
else  do  worse" — was  literally  realized.  And  now,  under 
Charles,  the  main  body  of  Puritans  anticipated  that  the 
policy  of  repression  was  about  to  be  applied  to  them. 
For  Charles  appointed  as  his  chief  administrator  in  church 
matters  William  Laud  (then  Bishop  of  London  and 


New  England 


55 


later  Archbishop  of  Canterbury),  and  "conformity"  be 
came  the  keynote  in  Charles's  government  of  the  Church 
of  England. 

It  is  a  cardinal  fact  in  the  situation  that  the  party  of  TheMassa- 

Puritan  belief  in  ^hauyset1 
religion  had  come  Company, 
to  be  also  the 
party  opposed  to 
the  absolute  rule 
of  the  Stuart 
monarchs.  To 
them,  Parliament 
was  the  bulwark 
of  English  liber 
ties,  and  it  was 
with  dismay  that 
they  saw  the  de- 
termination  of 
Charles  to  rule 
without  that  body. 
The  final  decision 
of  leading  Puri 
tans  to  endure  no 
longer  the  threat 
ening  conditions 
in  England  and 
to  establish  a  colony  in  America  dates  from  the  dissolution 
by  Charles  of  his  third  Parliament,  March,  1629.  Within  a 
week  from  that  date  the  King  granted  a  charter  to  twenty 
prominent  Puritans,  confirming  their  title  to  a  strip  of  land 
between  the  Charles  and  the  Merrimac  Rivers  and  three 
miles  beyond  each.  This  was  the  incorporation  of  the 
"Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay  in  New 
England." 

Later  in  the  same  year,  the  Company  voted  at  a  meeting  The  great 
in  London  to  remove  the  charter  and  government  to  their 
colony  in  America.     Consequently,  the  year  1630  saw  the 


Governor  Winthrop 

From  a  painting  in  the  State  House,  Boston 


56 


American  History 


Why  the 
charter 
was  taken 
to  America. 


The  Com 
pany  and 
the  Colony. 


The  gov 
ernment  of 
the  colony. 


emigration  of  a  body  of  one  thousand  Puritans  to  the 
region  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  bearing  with  them  the  form 
of  their  government  and  entering  at  once  upon  the  found 
ing  of  ua  new  state"  in  the  New  World.  At  the  same 
time  John  Winthrop  became  governor  of  the  Company. 

The  transference  of  the  charter  was  possible  because  its  terms 
fixed  no  place  for  the  meetings  of  the  members  and  officers  of 
the  Company.  It  was,  to  all  outward  appearance,  merely  a 
trading  corporation  organized  for  gain.  No  hint  of  the  underly 
ing  purpose  was  expressed  in  the  charter.  This  purpose  was  the 
establishment  in  America  of  a  new  state  modelled  upon  the 
peculiar  ideas  of  the  Puritans.*  The  discovery  of  this  intention 
might  lay  the  Company  open  to  persecution. 

The  consequences  following  upon  the  removal  of  the 
legal  residence  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company  to 
America  were  momentous.  By  this  act  the  Company  be 
came  merged  into  the  colony;  for  though  very  few  of  the 
stockholders  (called  "freemen")  actually  came  to  Amer 
ica,  new  settlers  were  admitted  to  membership  in  the  Com 
pany,  and  so  the  Company  tended  to  become  identical  with 
the  colony.  In  the  provision  that  each  member  must  be 
an  adherent  of  the  Puritan  church  we  see  firmly  established 
the  principle  that  religious  and  not  commercial  consid 
erations  were  dominant.  These  were  the  freemen — the 
voters — -of  the  colony.  Thus  the  Puritan  element  ruled, 
and  here  the  Puritans  worked  out  their  ideal  common 
wealth,  almost  entirely  free  from  outside  interference. 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  grew  rapidly.  Soon  were 
planted  about  Boston  (founded  in  1630),  numerous  other 
towns — Newtown  (Cambridge),  Charlestown,  Dorchester, 
Roxbury,  and  Watertown.  The  original  provision  of  the 
charter  for  the  government  of  the  Company  included  the 
election  by  the  stockholders  of  a  governor,  a  deputy-gov 
ernor,  and  eighteen  assistants.  There  were  to  be  meetings 
of  the  Company,  called  general  courts,  at  least  four  times 

*  This  was  the  idea  of  the  men  who  planned  and  guided  the  colony. 
The  great  mass  of  emigrants  in  following  these  leaders  were  moved  by 
an  intelligent  purpose  to  better  their  economic  condition. 


New  England 


57 


yearly.  These  provisions  now  applied  to  the  government 
of  the  colony.  The  scattering  of  population  rendered  the 
holding  of  the  general  courts  impracticable,  and  there  was 


<J1      It 


The  New  England  Colonies 


a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  authorities  to  con 
trol  matters  without  reference  to  the  colonists.  But  within 
a  few  years  it  came  about  that  each  town  sent  two  deputies 


58  American  History 

to  the  general  court  at  Boston.  The  deputies  sat  first  with 
the  assistants,  and  later  alone;  they  then  constituted  the 
lower  house  of  the  colonial  legislature,  the  assistants  con 
stituting  the  upper  house.  At  the  same  time  the  assistants 
were  administrative  officers,  and  sat  as  a  judicial  body  to 
try  cases.  The  governor,  the  deputy-governor,  and  the 
assistants  were  elected  by  the  freemen.  The  colony  was 
thus,  in  form,  a  small  republic. 

Local  goy-        For  the  government  of  their  towns,  the  Puritans  selected 
Mas™a-nt ' 1   certain  political  forms  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed 
chusetts.       in  the  mother  country.     The  English  town, /or  parish, 
furnished  the  model.     Selectmen  were  elected  (correspond 
ing  to  the  church  wardens  in  England)  who  had  general 
oversight  of  town  affairs,   both  civil  and  ecclesiastical. 
The  parish  meetings  became  town  meetings  in  America, 
to  which  were  admitted  not  only  the  freemen  of  the  colony 
(church  members),  but  other  landholders    as  well.     For 
conducting  the  various  functions  of  local  government,  care 
of  the  church,  schools,  poor,  roads,  boundaries,  etc.,  numer 
ous  officers  were  elected.     These  were  the  clerk,  treasurer, 
constables,  justices,  pound-keepers,  fence  viewers,  and  often 
many  others.     The  town  was  thus  a  pure  democracy. 
The  While,  for  a  short  time,  the  Puritans  in  America  claimed 

church.  to  continue  in  allegiance  to  the  Church  of  England,  it  is 
not  strange  that  their  freedom  from  restraint,  coupled  with 
the  advice  and  example  of  the  Plymouth  settlers,  led  them 
to  establish  their  church  in  America  upon  an  independent 
foundation.  We  must  not  infer,  however,  that  the  freedom 
which  the  Puritans  sought  for  themselves  they  were  willing 
to  grant  to  others.  The  discussions  that  arose  over  Roger 
Williams  and  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson  reveal  in  a  strong 
light  the  intolerance  of  the  Puritans.* 

*  "  It  was  no  modern  generalized  love  of  liberty,  civil  or  religious,  but 
a  strenuous  desire  to  find  a  place  where  they  might  make  real  their  ideal 
of  church  organization  that  brought  the  Puritans  out  of  their  comfort 
able  nests  in  England  to  dwell  in  poor  cabins  in  a  wilderness."  Eg- 
gleston,  Beginners  of  a  Nation,  197-198. 


Xcw  Enyland  59 

Roger  Williams,  a  man  of  great  natural  ability  and  a   "The 
graduate  of  Cambridge,  was  a  minister  in  Salem.     Here  religious01 
he   announced   a  new   doctrine;   viz.,   that   the  King   of   freedom." 
England  had  no  right  to  grant  Indian  lands  in  Amer 
ica    to    the    colonists.       It    was    also    Williams's    theory 
that  the   governments   of   church   and    state    should    be 


Signature  of  Roger  Williams 

separate  instead  of  united.  More  specifically,  he  de 
nounced  the  Puritan  system  of  civil  laws  compelling 
church  attendance  and  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath, 
and  taxing  the  people  for  the  support  of  the  church. 
His  ideas  upon  this  point  were  in  accord  with  the  prin 
ciples  of  our  government  to-day;  but  they  were  precisely 
contrary  to  the  Puritan  theory  and  practice.  Williams 
was  therefore  sentenced  by  the  general  court  to  banish 
ment.  Escaping,  when  they  threatened  to  transport 
him  to  England,  he  fled  to  friendly  Indians,  in  the 
winter  of  1635-1636.  With  four  or  five  companions 
he  founded  Providence,  the  first  town  in  the  future 
colony  of  Rhode  Island. 

In  character  Roger  Williams  was  almost  above  reproach,  but 
he  was  an  impractical  leader.  Far  in  advance  of  his  age  upon  the 
great  principle  of  religious  toleration,  he  was  yet  like  his  con 
temporaries  in  his  fondness  for  abstruse  and  dogmatic  theorizing 
upon  many  points  of  theology.  To  the  authorities  of  Massa 
chusetts  Bay  Colony,  his  banishment  seemed  necessary  as  a 
means  of  curbing  the  tendency  toward  religious  dissent,  which, 
if  allowed  full  play,  might  destroy  the  unity  and  undermine  the 
strength  of  the  colony.  In  the  same  way  certain  Presbyteri 
ans,  Baptists,  and  Quakers  of  the  colony  were  fined  and  im 
prisoned  for  their  dissent.  These  sects  were  tolerated  in  Rhode 


60 


American  History 


The  case  of 
Mrs. 

Hutchin- 
son. 


The  for 
mation  of 
Rhode  Is 
land  Colo 
ny. 


Massa 
chusetts  a 
theocracy. 


Island,  however,  and  this  colony  became  a  refuge  for  the  per 
secuted.* 

Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson  differed  from  orthodox  Puritans 
upon  some  points  in  theology  with  which  the  modern  world 
does  not  concern  itself;  and  although  at  one  time  she  had 
the  sympathy  of  the  governor  of  Massachusetts,  Sir  Henry 
Vane,  the  leading  minister  of  Boston,  John  Cotton,  and 
a  large  number  of  the  Boston  Puritans,  yet  she  was  con 
demned  to  banishment.  Some  of  her  followers  founded 
Newport  and  Portsmouth  in  Rhode  Island,  and  later  Mrs. 
Hutchinson  removed  thither.  The  two  towns  last  men 
tioned  united  under  a  single  government.  Later,  Williams 
went  to  England  and  obtained  a  charter  under  which,  in. 
1647,  a  union  was  consummated  consisting  of  all  the 
Narragansett  Bay  settlements  under  the  name  "  Provi 
dence  Plantations."  Thus  was  founded  the  colony  of 
Rhode  Island. 

Since  the  Puritans  made  the  maintenance  of  religious 
purity  and  discipline  one  of  the  first  duties  of  the  civil 
government,  it  was  natural  that  the  ministers  should  exert 
a  dominant  influence,  f  Hence,  we  have  in  Massachusetts 
Bay  Colony  a  veritable  theocracy.  "Like  the  ecclesi 
astics  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  ministers  of  New  England 
were  statesmen  and  political  leaders."  |  This  fact, 
coupled  with  the  limitation  of  the  suffrage,  gave  for  many 
years  a  distinctly  aristocratic  trend  to  a  government  that 
was  theoretically  democratic. 

Early  in  the  history  of  New  England,  the  valley  of  the 
Connecticut  River  became  known  for  its  great  fertility 

*  "Noe  person  within  the  sayd  colonye,  at  any  tyme  hereafter,  shall 
bee  anywise  molested,  punished,  disquieted,  or  called  in  question  for 
any  differences  in  opinione  in  matters  of  religion,  and  [he]  doe  not 
actually  disturb  the  civill  peace  of  our  sayd  colony."  Extract  from 
Rhode  Island  Charter, of  1662. 

t  Among  the  ministers  of  great  ability  and  of  learning  in  the  Cal- 
vinistic  theology  of  the  times  were  John  Cotton,  Richard  Mather,  arid 
Thomas  Hooker. 

$  Osgood,  The  American  Colonies  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  I,  218. 


New  England  61 

and  for  the  advantages  it  offered  to  fur  traders.  The 
Dutch  (then  established  at  the  present  site  of  New  York) 
traded  there,  and  in  1633  they  planted  a  fort  where  Hart 
ford  now  stands. 

At  this  time  there  arose  among  the  people  of  Newtown,   The  settie- 
Watertown,  and  Dorchester  a  desire  to  remove  to  the  Con-  cmmecti- 
necticut  Valley.     In   1636,  bodies  of  colonists  migrated  cut- 
from  these  towns,  and  established  Hartford,  Windsor,  and 
Weathersfield.     This  movement,  as  it  could  not  very  well 
have    been    prevented,  wras    authorized    by  the    Massa 
chusetts  government.     Local   control  in  the  new  towns 
was  provided  for  temporarily  by  the  appointment  of  com 
missioners  who  were  from  among  the  settlers.     At  the  end 
of  a  year  the  commissioners  called  a  " general  court"  to 
which  the  towns  sent  deputies ;  this  was  the  beginning  of  a 
colonial  government  upon  an  independent  basis. 

One  of  the  leaders  was  Rev.  Thomas  Hooker,  who,  in  England, 
had  been  so  prominent  as  a  learned  and  eloquent  preacher  of 
Puritanism  as  to  merit  persecution  by  Archbishop  Laud.  Hook 
er's  views  of  government  were  more  liberal  than  those  upon 
which  Massachusetts  was  founded,  and  it  may  be  that  the  dis 
content  which  led  to  the  settlement  of  Connecticut  was  partly 
caused  by  the  strictness  of  government  in  the  parent  colony. 

The  government  of  Connecticut  Colony  was  formally  "  The  Fun- 
set  forth  in  1639  by  the  adoption  of  "The  Fundamental  o5«?Ni* 
Orders."  This  document  consisted  of  a  covenant,  like  Connecti- 
that  of  the  Mayflower  Compact,  and  a  series  of  laws  for 
the  colony.  Since  the  provisions  of  the  Fundamental 
Orders  could  be  repealed  or  altered  by  the  general  court, 
the  document  was  not,  in  this  respect,  a  superior  authority 
like  the  State  Constitutions  of  to-day;  but  in  it  there  was  no 
recognition  of  any  authority,  royal  or  otherwise,  except 
that  of  the  people  themselves.  There  was  in  Connecticut 
no  stated  religious  qualification  for  citizenship,  and  no 
officer,  the  governor  alone  excepted,  need  be  a  member  of 
the  Puritan  church.  The  governor,  assistants,  and  depu 
ties  were  elected  by  the  people;  the  last  constituted  a  repre- 


cut. 


62 


American  History 


New 
Haven 
Colony 
settled. 


sentative  assembly,  consisting  at  first  of  four  deputies  from 
each  town.  The  Fundamental  Orders  were  thus  the 
framework  of  a  republican  commonwealth  similar  in  most 
respects  to  Massachusetts. 

In  1638,  a  body  of  Puritans  from  England  settled  on 
Long  Island  Sound,  west  of  the  Connecticut  River,  and 
called  their  colony  New  Haven.  The  people  were  Puritans 
of  the  strictest  type;  and  they  now  formed  a  compact  for 


Old  House  in  Guilford,  1639 

self-government,  admitting  only  church  members  to  a 
share  in  it.  It  was  their  rule  "  thatt  the  worde  of  God  shall 
be  the  onely  rule  to  be  attended  unto  in  ordering  the 
affayres  of  government  in  this  plantation."  Here  the 
laws  of  the  Old  Testament  were  for  a  time  literally  applied 
in  the  conduct  of  daily  affairs.  Later,  other  towns  were 
founded  in  the  same  vicinity,  and  these  were  united  into 
New  Haven  Colony.  A  general  court,  consisting  of 
deputies  from  the  several  towns  conducted  the  colonial 


New  England  63 

government.     The  absorption  of  New  Haven  by  Connecti 
cut  removed  the  peculiarities  above  mentioned  (see  p.  88). 

Settlements    which    were    mere    fishing    and    trading  The  begin- 
stations  were  established  on  the  coasts  of  what  are  now  the  Mataeand 
States  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  before  the  settle-  New 
rnent  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.     Traders  carried  to  Shtre.P" 
England,  lumber,  fish,  furs,  and  whale  oil,  and  brought 
back  liquors,  guns,  and  ammunition  for  barter  with  the 
Indians.     In  the  early  history  of  this  region  there  was  a 
complicated  series  of  disputes  as  to  its  ownership  between 
Massachusetts  and  various  grantees   (especially  Sir  Fer 
nando  Gorges  and  John  Mason)  who  had  received  patents 
of  land  north  of  the  Merrimac  River. 

ENGLISH    AND   COLONIAL  HISTORY,    1640-1660 


The  period  of  Charles  I's  personal  rule  (1629-1640)  was  Charles  I 

and  the 
Puritans. 


followed  in  1642  by  civil  ,war.     The  forces  of  the  King,   and  tne 


the  Royalists,  were  arrayed  against  those  of  Parliament, 
the  Puritans.  The  war  was  originally  a  struggle  for  con 
stitutional  government  under  a  monarchy;  but  in  the  course 
of  time,  under  the  leadership  of  the  extreme  Puritans,  or 
Independents,  it  became  a  struggle  for  a  republican  gov 
ernment.  The  success  of  this  party  was  followed  by  the 
execution  of  Charles  I  (1649)  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Commonwealth,  with  Oliver  Cromwell  as  its  central  figure. 
This  was  a  time  of  turbulence  and  disorder,  requiring, 
doubtless,  a  rule  of  much  harshness.  Consequently,  the 
enemies  of  the  Puritan  government  had  little,  if  any,  more 
peace  than  wras  formerly  allowed  to  the  Puritans  themselves. 

The  English  people  became  dissatisfied  with  this  state  The  Resto- 
of  affairs,  especially  when  Richard  Cromwell  (1658-1660) 
showed  his  incapacity  for  the  position  occupied  by  his 
father.  The  overthrow  of  the  Commonwealth  and  the 
establishment  of  Charles  I's  son  on  the  throne  as  Charles  II 
were  then  easily  accomplished.  This  (1660)  was  the  res 
toration  of  the  Stuart  dynasty  to  the  throne  of  England. 


64 


American  History 


Results  in 
America. 


The  New 
England 
Confedera- 
tion(1643). 


Influence 
of  this 
union. 


Virginia 
during  the 
Common 
wealth. 


These  events  of  English  history  affected  in  important 
ways  the  course  of  colonial  history.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  the  Puritan  migration  to  America  ceased. 
The  population  of  the  New  England  colonies,  at  that 
time  about  30,000,  was  almost  exclusively  Puritan,  and 
hence  there  existed  among  them  strong  bonds  of  sym 
pathy.  This  was  especially  true  concerning  Massachusetts, 
Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven,  where  the  Puri 
tan  church  was  supreme.  Under  the  pressure  of  com 
mon  dangers  these  four  colonies  formed,  in  1643,  the  New 
England  Confederation.  The  dangers  referred  to  were: 

(1)  Indian   attacks,  the    Narragansetts    and    Mohegans 
being  particularly  restless  and  liable  to  cause  trouble. 

(2)  The  territory  occupied  by  Connecticut  was  still  claimed 
by  the  Dutch.     (3)  Among  themselves  the  colonies  had 
boundary  disputes.     The  Confederation  was  formed  for 
defence  at  a  time  when  the  English  Government  could 
render  no  assistance,  and  "for  preserving  and  propagating 
the  truths  of  the  gospel."     The  settlements  on  the  New 
Hampshire  coast  and  those  of  Rhode  Island  were  refused 
admission  to  the  Confederation  because  they  did  not  con 
form  to  the  strict  Puritan  ideal  of  religion  and  government. 

The  governing  body  of  the  Confederation  was  a  board  com 
posed  of  two  members  from  each  of  the  four  colonies.  Its  powers 
were  largely  advisory;  the  actual  execution  of  its  requirements, 
such  as  the  raising  of  troops  and  of  money,  rested  with  the  vari 
ous  colonial  authorities.  The  Confederation,  however,  exercised 
great  influence  on  numerous  occasions.  Besides  settling  the 
boundary  dispute  with  the  Dutch,  it  held  the  Indians  in  check, 
and  gave  advice  and  assistance  to  the  general  courts  of  the 
colonies  in  supporting  Harvard  College  and  in  attacking  the 
Quakers.  After  1664,  when  New  Haven  was  absorbed  by  Con 
necticut,  its  activities  became  feeble,  and  the  end  of  its  existence 
came  when,  in  1684,  the  Massachusetts  charter  was  annulled. 

In  1652,  commissioners  representing  Parliament  arrived 
in  Virginia  and  demanded  recognition  of  the  Puritan 
government  in  England.  This  was  granted,  since  peace 
and  industrial  prosperity  were  the  main  objects  of  the 


New  England  65 

colonists'  desires.  The  House  of  Burgesses  assumed  con 
trol  of  the  colonial  government,  and  they  were  now  free-  to 
elect  their  own  governor,  without  interference  by  English 
authorities. 

It  was   at   this   time  that  the  defeated  Royalists,   or  The  Cava- 
Cavaliers,  came  in  great  numbers  to  Virginia.     The  popu-  ^growth 
lation  rose  from  15,000  in  1648  to  38,000  in  1670.     More-  of  Virginia. 
over,  this  meant  a  great  increase  in  the  numbers  of  certain 
classes  of  settlers — the  high-born  and  the  wealthy.     Such 
settlers  there  had  been  before  in  Virginia,  but  now  this  be 
came  the  dominant  class.     Their  coming  brought  about 
a  change  in  the  character  of  Virginian  society,  giving  to  it 
that  aristocratic  tone  for  which  it  became  noted.     It  also 
resulted  in  the  firm  establishment  and  extension  of  the 
large  plantation  system  of  industry.     For  now  large  grants 
of  land  became  common  and  the  demand  for  labor  to 
clear  the  forests   and   to   plant  tobacco   brought  to   the 
colony  an  increasing  number  of  slaves  and  indentured 
servants. 

The  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  was  welcomed  in  Virginia. 
The  Assembly  elected  Sir  William  Berkeley  governor, 
and  he  soon  secured  a  royal  commission. 

The  history  of  toleration  in  Maryland  was  influenced   HOW 
by  the  trend  of  events  in  England,  and  by  the  fact  that  a  England1 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants,  probably  three-fourths,   affected 
were  Protestants.*     In  1648,  Lord  Baltimore,  seeking  to 
gain  the  favor  of  Parliament,  and  thus  to  hold  his  pos 
sessions  more  securely,  appointed  a  Protestant  governor 
for  Maryland;  the  next  year  he  drew  up  a  "Toleration 
Act"  which  was  promptly  enacted  by  the  Assembly  as  the 
law  of  the  colony.     Under  this  act,  any  believer  in  the 
Trinity  might  peacefully  reside  in  Maryland.     In  accord 
ance  with  the  spirit  of  the  times,  blasphemy  and  denial  of 

*  Many  Puritans  who  had  settled  in  Virginia  under  the  liberal  regime 
of  the  London  Company,  were  forced  to  leave  there  during  the  period 
of  the  Civil  War.  They  found  refuge  under  the  tolerant  rule  of  Lord 
Baltimore. 


66  American  History 

the  Trinity  were  punishable  with  death,  and  the  con 
fiscation  of  property. 

During  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  Protestants 
obtained  control  of  Maryland,  denied  to  Lord  Baltimore 
his  rights,  and  enacted  laws  of  great  severity  against  the 
Catholics.  A  civil  war  on  a  small  scale  resulted.  Fort 
unately,  under  Cromwell's  influence,  the  rights  of  the 
proprietor  were  restored  in  1657,  and  with  this  came  the 
firm  establishment  of  the  rule  of  toleration. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

Plymouth. — 1.  General  References.  Thwaites,  The  Colonies, 
113-124.  Fisher,  The  Colonial  Era,  88-100.  Lodge,  Short 
History  of  the  English  Colonies,  341-342. 

2.  The  Pilgrims  in  England  and  Holland.     Fiske,  Beginnings 
of  New  England,   66-75.     Eggleston,  Beginners  of  a  Nation, 
163-171.     Bancroft,  History  of  the  U.  S.,  I,  194-206. 

3.  The  detailed  story  of  the  Mayflower's  voyage  and  the  land 
ing.     Drake,  On  Plymouth  Rock.     Drake,  Making  of  New  Eng 
land,  67-87.     Fiske,  Beginnings  of  New  England,  79-87.     Eg 
gleston,  Beginners  of  a  Nation,  172-181.     Bancroft,  I,  206-214. 

4.  Hart,  Contemporaries,  I,  Why  the  Pilgrims  left  Holland, 
No.  97      The  Compact,    No.  98.     Bradford's   account  of   the 
first  landing,  No.  99.     Life  in  Plymouth,  No.  100. 

5.  Make  a  comparison  of  Jamestown  and  Plymouth  settlers  as 
to  motives,  stability  of  purpose,  the  common  stock  arrangement. 

6.  Explain  the  form  in  which  the  date  of  the  Pilgrims'  final 
landing  is  stated  as  "  December  11-21, 1620."     See  Larned,  Hist 
ory  for  Ready  Reference  under  "  Calendar,"  also,  Encyclopaedias. 

7.  Fiction.     Austin,  Standish  of  Standish.     Betty  Alden. 

The  Puritans. — 1.  Religious  sects  in  England.  Fiske,  Be 
ginnings,  43-72.  Eggleston,  Beginners,  98-107.  Fisher,  85-88. 
Gardiner,  History  of  England,  470-472.  Green,  History  of  the 
English  People,  460-472.  Bourne,  European  Background  of 
American  History,  221-229. 

2.  Charles  I  and  his  policy.  Eggleston,  191-199.  Fiske, 
97-101.  Gardiner,  England,  502-511;  516-520.  Green,  Eng 
land,  495-505. 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.— I.  General.     Thwaites,  124-140. 


New  England  67 

Fisher,     100-114.     Lodge,     343-347.     Fiske,     101-106.     Ban 
croft,  I,  230-238. 

2.  Compare  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  as  to  number  and 
character  of  settlers. 

3.  Church  policy.     Eggleston,  212-215.     Fiske,  108-109. 

4.  Roger  Williams.     Lodge,  347-348.     Fiske,  114-116.     Eg 
gleston,  267-275,  297-298.     Bancroft,  I,  249-256. 

5.  Mrs.   Hutchinson.     Eggleston,   329-341.     Fiske,   116-120. 
Bancroft,  I,  259-264.     Account  of  her  trial,  Hart,  Contempora 
ries,  I,  No.  108. 

6.  How  the  general  court  came  to  consist    of    two    houses. 
Fiske,  106-108. 

7.  Fiction.     Stimson,  King  Noanett. 

Connecticut.— 1.  General.  Thwaites,  140-146.  Fisher,  126- 
133.  Lodge,  373-375.  Eggleston,  316-326.  Fiske,  122-128. 

2.  Compare  the  views  of  Winthrop  and  Hooker.     Fiske,  124. 
Compare  the  views  of  Cotton  and  Hooker.     Eggleston,  320-322. 

3.  How  did  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  differ  in  the  proc 
ess  by  which  their  colonial  governments  came  about  ? 

4.  The  Fundamental  Orders.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  I,  No. 
120.     MacDonald,  Select  Charters,  I,  60-65. 

5.  Fiction.     Holland,  The  Bay  Path. 

Rhode  Island.— Thwaites,  146-150.  Fisher,  114-116;  123- 
124.  Lodge,  385-386. 

New  Haven. — Fiske,  134-139.  Eyler,  England  in  America, 
60-64. 

Maine  and  New  Hampshire. — Lodge,  397-405.  Thwaites, 
150-153. 

The  New  England  Confederation.— Fiske,  155;  158-160. 
Thwaites,  154-159;  161-164.  Drake,  Making  of  New  England, 
241-243. 

Further  source  material  upon  these  colonies  is  found  in  James 
and  Mann  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  5. 


CHAPTER  VI 
FURTHER  ENGLISH  COLONIZATION 


The  begin 
nings  of 
Dutch  ex 
ploration 
and  coloni 
zation. 


The  voy 
age  of 
Henry 
Hudson, 
1609. 


NEW  YORK   AND   NEW   JERSEY 

THE  struggle  between  England  and  Spain  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century  (see  pp.  34-35),  was  contempo 
raneous  with  Spain's  wars  against  her  revolted  Dutch  pos 
sessions.  When  Spain  absorbed  Portugal,  in  1580,  and 
took  possession  of  her  colonies  and  trading  posts  in  the 
far  East,  Dutch  traders  were  extensively  engaged  in  carry 
ing  Eastern  products  from  Lisbon  to  the  ports  of  northern 
Europe.  This  lucrative  traffic  being  broken  up  as  a  re 
sult  of  the  Dutch  revolt  (1579),  the  latter  were  forced  to  send 
their  vessels  to  the  East  in  order  to  maintain  their  carrying 
trade.  Here  they  took  possession  of  many  islands  and 
trading  posts  that  had  formerly  belonged  to  Portugal.* 
Various  trading  companies  were  organized  as  instruments 
for  pushing  Dutch  commercial  interests  and  at  the  same 
time  for  weakening  the  power  of  Spain. 

Among  these  the  most  important  was  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  (1602).  Dutch  navigators  did  not  confine 
their  Eastern  voyages  to  the  route  around  Africa,  but  sailed 
around  South  America  f  and  across  the  Pacific  to  Austral 
asia.  They  were  also  bent  upon  finding  a  northern  route 
around  Europe,  and  it  was  upon  the  search  for  this  route 

*  Among  these  were  the  Moluccas,  Java,  and  other  islands  still  owned 
by  the  Dutch. 

t  Cape  Horn  was  named  from  a  Dutch  captain;  New  Zealand  and 
Tasmania  are  also  Dutch  names. 

68 


Further  English  Colonization  69 

that  Henry  Hudson  was  sent  (1609)  by  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company.  Failing  to  accomplish  his  object,  he  turned 
westward  across  the  Atlantic  in  the  hope  that  a  passage  to 
Asia  might  be  found  through  America.*  Hudson  sailed 
into  Delaware  Bay  and  then  into  the  beautiful  New 
York  Harbor  and  up  the  Hudson  River  as  far  as  the  site 
of  Albany.  In  this  vicinity  he  remained  for  several  weeks, 
trading  with  the  Indians. 

Following  Hudson's  voyage,  several  trading  posts  were 
established,  the  present  sites  of  New  York  and  Albany 
being  occupied  as  early  as  1613-1614. 

Any  extensive  policy  of  trade  and  colonization  authorized  by    Dutch 
the  Dutch  government  would   involve  the  danger  of  irritating   cploniza- 
Spain;  for  a  truce  between  these  countries  had  been  made  in    ^^jj^ 
1609  which  was  to  last  for  twelve  years.     During  this  period,    begun, 
therefore,  the  peace  party  in  Holland  opposed  the  renewal  of 
aggressions  against  Spain.     The  year  1621,  however,  saw  the 
incorporation  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  which  pur 
posed  to  renew  the  war  against  Spain  by  attacking  its  fleets 
and  colonies  in  American  waters,  f     This  Company  was  given  the 
monopoly  of  Dutch  trade  on  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  America, 
and  it  had  authority  to  colonize  unoccupied  regions. 

Among  the  objects  that  brought  about  the  Dutch  West  The  Dutch 
India  Company,  viz.,  war,  trade,  and  colonization,  the  last  oompanyia 
was  of  least  importance.     But  colonists  were  sent  out  and  and  its 
several  trading  posts,  each  protected  by  a  fort,  were  planted 
on  the  Delaware,  Hudson,  and  Connecticut  rivers ;  Fort 
Nassau,  opposite  the  present  site  of  Philadelphia,  and  Fort 
Orange,  where  Albany  now  stands,  being  the  most  im 
portant.     Thus  the  limits  of  the  colony  of  New  Netherland 
were  established  between  the  Delaware  River  on  the  west 
and  the  Connecticut  on  the  east.     In  1626,  the  Company 
sent  out  settlers  with  a   Director-General,  Minuit,  who 

*  John  Smith  was  at  this  time  searching  for  the  isthmus  that  was  sup 
posed  to  separate  the  Atlantic  from  the  Pacific  in  about  latitude  40°  N., 
and  he  had  written  a  letter  to  Hudson  suggesting  that  it  might  be  found 
north  of  Virginia. 

t  Between  1623  and  1638  the  Dutch  captured  545  Spanish  and  Portu 
guese  vessels  and  gained  possessions  in  South  America  and  Africa, 


70 


American  History 


Settlement 
under  the 
patroons. 


Indepen 
dent  set 
tlers  and 
Indian 
relations. 


purchased  Manhattan  Island  and  founded  New  Am 
sterdam. 

These  settlements  were  at  first  of  slow  growth.  In 
1629,  the  Company  began  inducing  the  migration  of  agri 
cultural  settlers  by  the  establishment  of  the  "patroon  sys 
tem."  Individuals  who  would  undertake  to  bring  fifty 
adult  settlers  were  given  grants  of  land  extending  eight 
miles  on  both  sides  of  a  river,  or  sixteen  miles  on  one  side, 
and  back  into  the  country  indefinitely.  While  the  patroons 
were  to  be  subject  to  the  regulations  of  the  Company  in  the 
matters  of  trade  and  war,  they  were  given  powers  of  local 
government  over  their  settlers;  so  that  the  system  re 
sembled  in  some  ways  the  feudal  customs  of  Europe. 
Very  few  patroonships  were  ever  established,  and  the  most 
of  these  were  bought  up  by  the  Company.  This,  like 
other  plans  for  settlements  in  America  where  the  colonists 
wrere  made  closely  dependent  upon  large  land  owners,  was 
a  failure  and  had  little  influence  upon  the  life  of  the  colony. 
In  later  years,  however,  both  the  Dutch  and  their  successors, 
the  English,  granted  large  estates,  or  manors,  and  these 
were,  of  course,  worked  by  tenants. 

The  trend  of  economic  life  in  New  Netherland  was  de 
cidedly  influenced  when,  in  1638,  the  trade  monopoly  of 
the  West  India  Company  was  abolished  in  this  colony. 
The  profitable  fur  trade  and  the  rich  lands  wrere  now  open 
to  all  settlers.  Immigration  soon  increased  rapidly. 
Settlers  came  from  many  European  countries  and  from 
neighboring  English  colonies.  When  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven  were  settled,  the  Dutch  lost  their  trading  posts 
on  the  Connecticut  River.  From  the  time  of  Hudson's 
voyage  the  most  friendly  relations  existed  between  the 
Dutch  traders  and  the  Iroquois  Indians  of  the  upper 
Hudson  and  Mohawk  valleys.  The  latter  eagerly  seized 
the  opportunity  to  acquire  European  blankets,  utensils, 
guns,  and  rum  in  exchange  for  their  furs;  and  this  fact 
became  of  great  importance  in  our  colonial  history.  (See 
chapter  VIII.)  But  along  the  lower  Hudson  the  Algonquin 


Further  English  Colonization  71 

tribes  and  the  settlers  clashed,  and  terrible  Indian  wars  en 
sued.     Eventually  the  Indians  were  driven  back. 

Since  colonization  was  but  a  minor  interest  with  the  Govern- 
Dutch  West  India  Company,  it  established  at  the  begin-  j 
ning  a  government  that  was  "fit  only  for  a  trading  post."  India 
The  bankruptcy  of  the  Company  and  the  consequent  lack  ComPany- 
of  attention  to  its  colony  account  for  the  continuance  of 
this  bad  system.  The  chief  feature  of  New  Netherland's 
government  was  the  autocratic  rule  of  the  governor 
(called  the  Director-General).  He  and  his  council  of  five 
members  absorbed  all  local  powers,  legislating  upon  lands, 
trade,  taxes,  defence,  and  all  minor  matters,  and  admin 
istering  its  own  regulations  through  subordinate  officials. 
Finally,  they  sat  as  the  highest  court  of  civil  and  criminal 
jurisdiction.  The  arbitrariness  of  the  Governors  Kieft  and 
Stuyvesant  led  to  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  settlers  to 
secure  a  representative  assembly  and  such  liberal  methods 
of  government  as  they  saw  enjoyed  in  the  neighboring 
English  colonies.  But  the  governors  successfully  resisted 
the  permanent  establishment  of  such  reforms.  In  the 
towns  and  villages,  however,  a  considerable  degree  of  local 
self-government  prevailed. 

The  territory  theoretically  belonging  to  New  Netherland  was    The 
encroached  upon  when,  in  1638,  the  Swedes  founded  a  trading   Swedes  in 
post  and  fort  on  the   Delaware  River—  Fort  Christiana.     The    Delaware. 
part  taken  by  Sweden  in  the  great  European  struggle  known  as 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648)  brought  her  into  intimate 
contact  with  the  other  countries  of  northern  Europe  and  stimu 
lated  the  ambition  of  her  ruler,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  to  follow  the 
example  of  other  countries  in  founding  a  colonial  system.     The 
Swedish  settlements  flourished  as  long  as  the  Dutch  and  Swedish 
governments  were  allied  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.     Soon  after 
its  close  Governor  Stuyvesant  sent  a  military  expedition  that 
conquered  the  Delaware  Bay  posts  and  incorporated  them  into 
New  Netherland. 


The  English,  because  of  their  alliance  with  Holland, 
left    the    Dutch    colony    undisturbed    upon    soil  claimed   Dutch 
by    virtue    of    the    Cabot    voyages.     This    alliance    be-  English. 


-^&&s&*im 


x.ft.2.         Sanhicans 
Ti.ntm 


H^vT^  SS*~A  yEra"**** 

fcimof^*       0o2i£v*>JbV 


Narat icons     1     4.'  a, 


r*A^.»!i 


NEW    NETHERLAND 

From  the  Map  of 
A.    VANDERDONCK. 

1656. 


New  Netherland  In  1656 


Further  English  Colonization  73 

gan  in  their  common  struggle  against  Spain  and  was 
strengthened  by  ties  of  kinship,  religion,  and  political  inter 
est.  Then,  too,  the  years  of  active  Dutch  colonization 
were  years  of  strife  and  war  in  England.  After  the  Stuart 
restoration  of  1660,  these  conditions  gave  place  to  a  bitter 
trade  rivalry  between  these  nations.  The  English  Naviga 
tion  Act  of  1651  (see  p.  85),  aimed  directly  at  the  Dutch 
trade,  was  followed  by  war  between  the  two  countries. 
Soon  after  Charles  II  came  to  the  throne,  his  brother  James, 
the  Duke  of  York,  together  with  several  other  prominent 
Englishmen,  led  in  a  movement  for  the  investigation  of  this 
trade  rivalry  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  result  was  the  secret  determination  of  Charles  to  force 
a  war  upon  the  Dutch  by  first  seizing  New  Netherland. 

This  territory  was  granted  to  the  Duke  of  York  in  spite  of  The  Eng- 
the  fact  that  the  English,  by  their  failure  to  occupy  it,  had  ^/New 
no  valid  claim.     An  expedition,  consisting  of  three  vessels  Nether- 
carrying  troops,  was  sent  to  Massachusetts  and  thence  to 
New  Amsterdam,   where  it  appeared  in  August,    1664. 
Since  this  force  greatly  exceeded  the  force  at  Governor 
Stuyvesant's  command,  and  since  the  colonists  were  rather 
glad  to  exchange  the  illiberal  Dutch  rule  for  the  prospect 
of  better  government  under  the  English,  the  city  was  re 
luctantly    surrendered,    and    New    Netherland    became 
New  York. 

The  failure  of  the  Dutch  nation  to  maintain  a  vigorous  Causes  for 
colony  may  be  attributed  to  their  small  population  and  o 
lack  of  colonizing  spirit.     But  New  Netherland  was  the  quest. 
victim  of  neglect  at  the  hands  of  the  West  India  Company, 
which  had  spent  its  resources  in  the  strife  against  Spain. 
From  the  English  standpoint,  the  conquest  of  New  Nether 
land  was  a  great  gain,  and  its  results  were  beneficial  in  the 
highest  degree,  though  the  means  employed  were  question 
able.     A  check  was  put  upon  Dutch  participation  in  col 
onial  trade;  the  valuable  fur  trade  was  secured;  and  the 
middle  coast  of  North  America  no  longer  sheltered  a  rival 
colonizing  power. 


74 


American  History 


James's 
govern 
ment  of 
New  York. 


The  settle 
ment  of 
New 
Jersey. 


The  Duke  of  York  exercised  in  his  colony  a  very  com 
plete  autocratic  power,  especially  during  the  administra 
tion  of  Edmund  Andros  (1674-1681).  He,  like  Stuyvesant, 
was  a  zealous  servant  of  his  master  and  a  faithful  executive. 
Against  this  system  the  colonists,  especially  the  increasing 
English  element,  persistently  complained,  and  finally,  in 
1683,  the  Duke  established  an  elective  assembly  with  power 
to  tax  the  colony.  In  1685,  when  the  Duke  became  James 
II  of  England,  he  reverted  to  his  former  ideas  of  absolut 
ism,  and  during  his  reign  no  more  assemblies  were  elected. 

People  of  many  nationalities  came  to  New  York.  Most 
prominent,  besides  the  Dutch,  were  the  English,  Hugue 
nots,  and  Jews.  Agriculture  yielded  a  surplus  of  provisions, 
while  trade  with  the  Indians  and  with  European  countries 
became  an  important  industry. 

Soon  after  the  Duke  of  York  received  the  grant  of  his 
new  colony  he  granted  in  turn  a  large  part  of  it  to  two  of 
his  favorites,  Berkeley  and  Carteret,  who  were  officially 
prominent  in  the  restored  kingdom  at  home.  Their  land 
lay  between  the  Hudson  and  the  Delaware  rivers,  and 
was  destined  to  become  New  Jersey.  This  colony  con 
tained  a  mixed  population  of  Dutch,  English,  and  Swedes. 
Many  Puritans  from  New  England  settled  there.  In  the 
western  part,  on  the  Delaware  River,  prominent  Quakers 
of  England  purchased  land,  and  to  this  region  came  large 
numbers  of  their  people.  East  New  Jersey  was  also,  for  a 
time,  the  property  of  Quakers  who  endeavored  to  found  here 
a  colonial  refuge  for  their  sect.  Owing  to  endless  disputes 
over  the  rights  of  the  various  proprietors  and  disputes  with 
New  York  over  boundaries  and  trade,  no  consistent  policy 
was  carried  out  in  the  development  or  government  of  the 
colony.  New  Jersey  was  surrendered  to  the  crown  in  1702. 

THE   CAROLINAS 

Revival  of        When  the  Restoration  brought  comparative  quiet  to  Emr- 

colonizing      ,        ,   ,,  ,     „  ,f  ••       •    .          /•          i       • 

schemes  in  land  there  was  a  renewal  of  the  earlier  interest  in  colomza- 

England.      ^ion  on  the  part  of  the  government  and  those  closely  associ- 


Further  English  Colonization 


75 


at  eel  with  it.  To  some  of  those  loyal  friends  who  had  assisted 
him  in  the  recovery  of  his  throne,  Charles  II  gave  (1663)  the 
region  south  of  Virginia  now  occupied  by  the  Carolinas. 

Two  of  the  grantees,  Sir  John  Colleton  and  Lord  Ashley  (later 
famous  as  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury)  were  interested  in  a  project 
to  relieve  the  distress  of  settlers  in  Barbadoes  by  colonizing  them 
upon  the  continent.  Other 
proprietors  were  the  Earl 
of  Clarendon  and  Sir 
George  Carteret.  The  mo 
tives  of  the  proprietors 
were  commercial;  this  was 
a  revival  of  the  earlier 
hopes  of  profits  from  the 
planting  of  colonies. 


The  Carolina  Grant  by  Charter  of  1665 


The  northern  part  of 
the  Carolina  grant  had 
not  lacked  settlers  be 
fore  1663.  This,  as  Fiske 
points  out,  was  the  fron 
tier  of  Virginia.     Here 
came    indentured    ser 
vants    upon    becoming 
free,  now  forming  an  industrious  small  farmer  class.     With 
them  came  also  an  undesirable  element,  such  as  criminals   People  and 
and  debtors  escaping  from  justice.     The  growth  of  this  Al-  ^^ 
bemarle  settlement  was  slow.     Having  no  good  port  on   Carolina, 
the  ocean,  their  communication  was  chiefly  through  Vir 
ginia.     The  settlers  were  widely  scattered  on  small  farms 
along  the  rivers,  there  was  little  social  contact,  and  the 
colony  long  retained  its  "back-woods"  stamp.     Early  in 
its  history,  many  Quakers,  driven  from  New  England  and 
other  places,  came  to  North  Carolina.     Numerous  Puritans 
also  settled  here. 

The  history  of  the  Carolinas  under  the  proprietors  be-  Charleston 
gins  with  the  founding  of  Charleston*  by  a  company  of 

*  Not  at  its  present  site,  but  a  short  distance  southward  across  the 
Ashley  River. 


76 


American  History 


Hugue 
nots. 


Germans. 


Swiss. 


Social  and 
economic 
life  in  the 
Carolinas. 


settlers  sent  out  from  England  and  reenforced  by  others 
from  Barbadoes  and  the  Bahamas.  Besides  these,  many 
immigrants  came  from  other  European  countries. 

In  two  respects  the  policies  of  Louis  XIV  of  France  were  fav 
orable  to  the  English  colonies:  (1)  His  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  (1685)  drove  from  France  many  of  those  Protestants, 
called  Huguenots,  whose  political  and  religious  rights  had  been 
secured  by  that  instrument.  They  became  numerous  in  South 
Carolina,  and  here  "they  formed  an  excellent  and  influential 
part  of  the  population,  were  wealthy  and  of  high  social  position, 
and  their  descendants  were  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  the 
State."  * 

(2)  The  war  of  Louis  XIV  against  the  German  Palatinate 
(1689),  resulting  in  the  terrible  devastation  of  that  province,  is 
responsible  for  another  emigration  to  America.  The  Palatinate 
Germans  came  to  various  colonies,  including  the  Carolinas,  and 
constituted  a  substantial  element  among  the  farming  population. 

Swiss  settlers  also  came  to  the  Carolinas,  under  Baron  von 
Graffenried,  and  founded  New  Berne,  a  reminder  of  one  of  Switz 
erland's  chief  cities. 

South  Carolina  presented  a  strong  contrast  to  North 
Carolina  in  its  social  and  economic  conditions.  The  life  of 
the  former  centered  in  Charleston.  Large  plantations  were 
the  rule;  for  among  the  settlers  many  were  wealthy,  and 
some  bore  titles.  Plantation  life  was  not  isolated,  as  in 
Virginia;  many  of  the  planters  lived  in  Charleston.  Those 
who  came  from  Barbadoes  had  been  accustomed  there  to 
slavery,  and  soon  South  Carolina  had  more  negroes  than 
whites.  In  North  Carolina,  on  the  other  hand,  slaves 
were  not  numerous. 

Rice  came  to  be  the  principal  product  of  the  southern 
colony,  and  when  this  was  planted  in  excess  indigo  proved 
to  be  more  profitable.  Besides  these  products,  tobacco, 
lumber,  and  beef,  were  exported.  In  contrast  with  the 
crude  social  conditions  existing  in  North  Carolina,  the 
other  colony  had  much  social  life  and  a  comparatively 
high  degree  of  refinement. 

*  Lodge,  Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies,  173. 


Further  English  Colonization 


77 


The  policy  of  the  proprietors  in  granting  toleration  to  all    "The 
sects  encouraged  the  influx  of  diverse  elements  and  nation-   mental~ 
alities.     Politically,  their  policy  was  anything  but  liberal;  Constitu 
it  was  distinctly  intended  to  be  aristocratic.     The  founda 
tion  for  the  government  of  Carolina  was  "The  Funda 
mental  Constitution,"  drawn  up  by  Lord  Shaftesbury  and 
his  secretary,  John  Locke,  in  1669.     This  was  a  theoretical 


Charleston,  South  Carolina 
From  Dapper's  America,  Amsterdam,  1673 

scheme  for  the  erection  in  the  colony  of  various  govern 
mental  divisions  and  the  creation  of  numerous  officials  and 
orders  of  nobility.*  The  political  institutions  thus  es 
tablished  were  arbitrary,  the  minute  division  of  classes  was 
undemocratic,  the  numerous  officers  and  the  authority 
vested  in  them  were  burdensome.  In  brief,  this  plan  was 
made  in  England  regardless  of  the  actual  needs  of  the  set 
tlers.  As  Lodge  says,  the  foremost  practical  politician  and 
the  foremost  philosopher  of  England  united  their  abilities  in 
its  construction,  and  the  result  was  "a  simple  absurdity." 

*  Since  no  titles  might  be  used  similar  to  those  employed  in  England, 
the  terms  Palatine,  Landgrave,  and  Cacique  were  applied  to  orders  of 
officers  and  nobility. 


78  American  History 

struggles          The  charter  of  1663  provided  that  the  laws  of  Carolina 
resentath'e   should  be  enacted  "by  and  with  the  advice,  assent  and  ap- 
govern-        probation  of  the  freemen/'  who  were  to  meet  either  in 
irTsouth       person  or  by  their  representatives.     Accordingly,  an  As- 
Caroiina.      sembly  was  early  established,   and  the  later  history  of 
South  Carolina  is  filled  with  accounts  of  its  struggles  to 
maintain  and  to  extend  its  rights.     The  Assembly  at  first 
absolutely  refused  assent  to  the  Fundamental  Constitution, 
since  it  had  no  part  in  framing  this  document.     It  also  suc 
ceeded  in  its  resistance  to  the  proprietors'  plan  for  having 
all  laws  first  passed  by  the  council,  which  consisted  of  the 
proprietors'  appointees.     It  secured  the  right  to  elect  some 
of  the  colonial  officers,  and  thus  it  added  to  its  power. 
The  Assembly  finally  secured  the  right  to  originate  all  bills 
for  raising  revenue. 

Troubles  In  North  Carolina,  also,  there  were  many  long  and 
Carolina,  complicated  disputes  between  the  people  and  the  governors. 
Before  the  publication  of  the  Fundamental  Constitution, 
a  government  had  grown  up  in  North  Carolina,  and  the 
interruption  of  its  natural  development  by  the  imposition 
of  an  arbitrary  scheme  was  hotly  resented  by  the  unruly 
settlers.  The  Fundamental  Constitution  was  a  dead 
letter  in  that  colony  from  the  beginning.  In  1678,  and 
again  ten  years  later,  there  were  rebellions  in  the  course  of 
which  the  governors  were  driven  from  the  colony.  North 
Carolina  suffered  from  a  succession  of  bad  governors,  the 
greater  number  of  whom  were  favorites  of  the  proprietors, 
more  bent  upon  their  own  gain  than  upon  establishing  the 
prosperity  of  the  colony. 

There  was  also  much  friction  arising  from  attempts  to 
enforce  the  navigation  laws  in  North  Carolina.  The  lead 
ing  products  were  tobacco,  rice,  indigo,  lumber,  tar,  and 
turpentine.  Much  of  the  surplus  was  exported  from 
Norfolk  or  through  Charleston.  But  a  considerable 
amount  was  picked  up  by  New  England  ships  along  the 
larger  rivers  at  the  planters'  wharves.  In  this  trade  the 
duties  imposed  by  the  navigation  acts  were  uniformly 


Further  English  Colonization 


79 


evaded.  Every  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  to 
enforce  the  law  resulted  in  disorder  and  met  with  meagre 
success. 

PENNSYLVANIA    AND    DELAWARE 

Before  the  founding  of  Pennsylvania,  many  Quakers 
had  settled  in  Rhode  Island,  North  Carolina,  and  Mary 
land.  The  Jerseys  were  for  a  time  under  Quaker  control. 

Among  the  men 
who  organized  the 
Quaker  colony  in 
West  Jersey  was 
William  Penn,  a 
man  of  high  social 
position  in  Eng 
land;  and  his  inter 
est  in  this  enterprise 
led  to  the  founding 
of  a  new  colony  as 
"A  Holy  Experi 
ment"  in  govern 
ment. 

During  the  reign  William 
of  Charles  II,  the  ^snrne.and 
Quakers  in   Eng 
land  suffered    per- 

Wiiiiam  Penn  secution,  especially 

for  violations  of 

the  conventicle  act.*  Not  less  severe  were  the  social  pen 
alties  inflicted  upon  them  because  of  their  peculiar  doctrines 
and  behavior.  For  the  son  of  Admiral  Penn  of  the  English 
Navy,  who  stood  high  in  the  esteem  of  the  Stuart  monarchs, 
to  adhere  to  this  despised  sect  and  yet  to  retain  his  social 
position  was  evidence  of  strong  character  and  marked 

*  Among  other  restrictions  this  forbade  the  assembling  of  dissenting 
sects.  See  histories  of  England.  The  Quakers,  like  the  Catholics,  were 
penalized  for  not  attending  services  of  the  Established  Church. 


lations 
with  the 
Stuart 
monarchs. 


80 


American  History 


ability.  With  the  Duke  of  York,  Charles  IFs  brother, 
Penn  was  especially  intimate.  Admiral  Penn  had  loaned 
money  to  Charles  II,  but  the  debt  had  been  repudiated. 
This  loss  and  other  financial  reverses  had  reduced  his  son's 
fortune  considerably. 
When  the  latter  ap 
plied  to  the  King  for 
a  grant  of  land  in 
America,  his  influ 
ence  at  court  readily 


secured 

(1681). 


the  favor 


N 


Quaker  In  their  religious  be- 

beliefs.  liefs  the  Quakers  may 
be  regarded  as  Puritans 
of  an  extreme  type. 
Not  satisfied  with  the 
repudiation  of  outward 
ceremonies,  they  abol 
ished  likewise  the  min 
istry;  for  it  was  a  car 
dinal  tenet  of  their  faith 
that  spiritual  guidance 
came  direct  to  each  in 
dividual  and  was  mani 
fested  in  him  by  the 
"  inner  light "  that  pro 
ceeded  from  God  him 
self.  This  source  of 
inspiration  took  the 
place  of  the  Puritans' 
Bible  as  interpreted  by 
their  chosen  ministers. 

It  was  a  logical  consequence  of  this  belief  that  religious  toleration 
should  prevail  among  Quakers.  In  political  matters,  democracy 
alone  was  compatible  with  this  view  of  religion.  The  Quakers 
would  abolish  all  social  ranks  and  distinctions. 

penn's  Penn's  grant  of  land,  after  many  disputes  over  bounda- 

grant  and     rjes  •  was  finally  restricted  to  the  limits  of  the  present  State 
charter.  «J  ,  .       ,     .     .      . 

of  Pennsylvania.     His  charter  contained  limitations  not 


The  Middle  Colonies 


Further  English  Colonization  81 

found  in  those  of  other  proprietary  colonies,  such  as  the 
requirement  that  all  laws  should  be  submitted  to  the  ap 
proval  of  the  government  in  England,  and  that  the  people 
might  have  the  right  of  appeal  in  judicial  cases  to  the  King 
in  Council.  These  restrictions  and  the  obligation  to  en 
force  the  navigation  laws  may  be  regarded  as  safeguards 
that  the  experience  of  the  English  Government  in  dealing 
with  the  other  proprietary  colonies  seemed  to  justify. 

In  1681,  the  first  body  of  colonists  were  located  on  the  The  colony 
Delaware  River,  and  the  following  year  Penn's  surveyor 
laid  out  Philadelphia  upon  a  healthful  site,  admirably  ware 
adapted  for  commerce.  Penn  himself  came  in  1682  to 
superintend  personally  the  founding  of  his  colony.  In 
this  region  there  were  already  a  thousand  prosperous 
Dutch  and  Swede  settlers.  In  view  of  commercial  ad 
vantages,  Penn  secured  as  an  addition  to  his  grant  the  land 
on  Delaware  Bay  now  constituting  the  State  of  Delaware. 
Quakers  came  to  Pennsylvania  in  great  numbers,  and  pros 
perity  began  from  the  very  first. 

Penn  was  much  interested  in  the  political  theorizing  The 
prevalent  at  this  time,  and  his  "Frame  of  Government" 
for  Pennsylvania  reflects  much  conscientious  thought,  ment." 
Unlike  some  other  proprietors,  he  made  no  effort  to  en 
large  his  own  prerogatives,  but  rather  sought  to  favor 
popular  rights.  The  people,  said  he,  must  rule.  "Any 
government  is  free  to  the  people  under  it,  whatever  be  the 
frame,  where  the  laws  rule  and  the  people  are  a  party  to 
those  laws,  and  more  than  this  is  tyranny,  oligarchy,  or 
confusion."  In  accordance  with  this  principle,  Penn  at 
once  called  a  legislature  consisting  of  an  Assembly  and  a 
Council,  both  elective.  In  the  distribution  of  powers 
among  the  Assembly,  the  Council,  and  the  Governor, 
Penn's  plans  did  not  work  out  successfully ;  so  that  after 
his  departure  from  the  colony  (1684)  many  disputes  arose. 
As  the  outcome  of  these,  the  Assembly  eventually  secured 
the  right  to  initiate  bills,  while  the  Council  became  ap 
pointive  and  lost  its  power  to  share  in  legislation.  So 


82 


American  History 


Enlight 
ened  gov 
ernment. 


Non-Eng 
lish  colon 
ists. 


the  legislature  of  this  colony  came  to  be  composed  of 
only  one  house. 

In  Pennsylvania  no  religious  sect  had  cause  to  feel  re 
straint.  A  broad  humane  spirit  is  shown  in  the  fact  that 
the  laws  provided  capital  punishment  for  only  two  offences 
— murder  and  treason.*  Other  laws  established  prisons 
and  an  insane  asylum  where  some  regard  should  be  shown 
for  the  decent  treatment  of  their  inmates  and  for  the  re 
form  of  criminals — ideas  far  in  advance  of  the  times. 

The  English  colonists  constituted  but  one-half  of  Penn 
sylvania's  population.  Swedes,  Finns,  and  Dutch  con 
tinued  to  come,  while  thither  flocked  many  Welsh  and 
Palatinate  Germans. f  German  Mennonites  and  other 
sects  having  beliefs  in  harmony  with  that  of  the  Quakers 
were  invited  to  the  colony  and  found  there  a  congenial 
industries,  home.  Although  agriculture  was  the  chief  industry  in 
Pennsylvania,  grain  and  cattle  being  exported  in  large 
quantities,  commerce  flourished  from  the  beginning  and 
the  manufacture  of  many  articles  was  begun. 

Perm's  dealings  with  the  Indians,  no  less  than  his  legislation, 
reflect  his  peace-loving  and  humane  disposition.  Here,  as  else 
where  in  the  colonies,  pains  were  taken  to  purchase  Indian  lands, 
and  Penn  proposed  a  board  of  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of 
disputes,  but  this  was  not  realized.  The  freedom  of  the  colonists 
from  Indian  troubles  is  owing  partly  to  the  Quakers'  dislike  of 
violence  and  their  sense  of  justice;  and  partly  to  the  fact  that 
their  neighbors,  the  Delaware  Indians,  had  been  subjugated  by 
the  powerful  Iroquois,  the  Englishmen's  friends. 

Penn's  influence  at  the  court  of  Charles  II,  and  his 
friendship  with  James  II  had  important  consequences. 
When  Charles  II  began  the  process  of  nullifying  charters 
(see  post,  p.  89),  that  of  Pennsylvania  was  not  touched. 
When  James  II  consolidated  the  northern  colonies  (see 

*  Later,  other  crimes,  raising  the  number  to  fourteen,  were  added. 
Contrast  this  with  the  contemporary  list  of  two  hundred  capital  crimes 
in  England. 

t  Penn  had  travelled  in  Germany, 'and  he  wrote  letters  and  sent  descrip 
tive  pamphlets  to  induce  immigration  to  Pennsylvania. 


Relations 
with  the 
Indians. 


Further  English  Colonization  83 

post,  p.  89),  Pennsylvania  was  left  independent.  This 
colony  soon  ranked  third  in  population,  Virginia  and 
Massachusetts  alone  exceeding  it;  while  Philadelphia  be 
came  the  largest  city  in  the  thirteen  English  colonies. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

New  York.— I.  General.  Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  196-203. 
Fisher,  The  Colonial  era,  177-193.  Lodge,  Short  History  of 
English  Colonies,  285-288;  294-297. 

2.  Henry  Hudson.     Fiske,   Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  in 
America,  I,  82-95.     Drake,  Making  of  Virginia  and  the  Middle 
Colonies,  108-116. 

3.  Why  the  English  conquered  New  Netherland.     Andrews, 
Colonial  Self-government,  74-81-. 

4.  Stuyvesant  and  the  End  of  Dutch  rule.     Drake,  135-145. 
Reasons  for  the  surrender.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  I,  No.  155. 

New  Jersey.— I.  General.  Fisher,  194-198.  Thwaites,  210- 
214. 

2.  Drake,  Making  of  Virginia,  etc.,  East  New  Jersey,  161- 
169.  West  New  Jersey,  169-176. 

The  Carolinas.—l.  General.  Thwaites,  89-95.  Fisher,  76- 
81.  Lodge.  North  Carolina,  132-139.  South  Carolina,  158-162. 

2.  The  Fundamental  Constitutions.    MacDonald,  Select  Char 
ters,   I,   149-168.     Fiske,  Old  Virginia,   II,  273-276.     Larned, 
Ready  Reference,  2425-2426. 

3.  The  effect  of  geographical  conditions  in  North  Carolina. 
Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  II,  308-311.     Life  and  Industries,  311-322. 
In  South  Carolina,  322-333. 

4.  Life  in  North  Carolina,  Lodge,  152-157.     In  South  Caro 
lina,  179-186. 

5.  A  description  of  South  Carolina.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  II, 
No.  34. 

Pennsylvania.— I.  General.  Fisher,  Colonial  Era,  199-206. 
Thwa'tes,  The  Colonies,  215-217.  Lodge,  English  Colonies, 
199-206.  W7ilson,  American  People,  I,  300-313. 

2.  Fiske,  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies,  I.  Penn's  early  life 
and  his  religious  ideas,  108-126.  The  Colony,  II,  147-158;  306- 
312;  324-329.  Indian  relations,  II,  158-166.  See  also  Fiske, 
Beginnings  of  New  England,  205-206. 


84  American  History 

3.  Penn  and  his  grant.     Andrews,  Colonial  Self-government, 
162-169. 

4.  The  charter.     Fiske,  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies,  II,  Ap 
pendix,  II.     MacDonald,  Select  Charters,  183-190. 

5.  Penn's  Frame  of  Government  (1682),  MacDonald,  192-199. 
That  of  1683,  199-204.     That  of  1696,  217-222. 

6.  Hart,  Contemporaries,  I.     Conditions  in  Pennsylvania,  No. 
161.     The  Indian  Treaty,  No.  162.     The  Germans,  No.  163. 

7.  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  the  Carolinas  are  treated  in 
James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  6. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  COLONIES  AFTER  THE  RESTORATION— 
1660-1690 

THE  early  neglect  of  colonial  affairs  by  the  English  The  navi- 
Government  under  the  first  two  Stuarts  was  followed  by  a  f^g0n 
more  definite  policy  of  control  begun  during  the  Common 
wealth  and  developed  after  the  Restoration.  The  navi 
gation  acts  were  a  part  of  this  policy.  In  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  Holland  was  the  greatest  com 
mercial  nation  of  Europe,  the  Dutch  carrying  three- 
fourths  of  England's  commerce.  Great  quantities  of  to 
bacco  were  shipped  in  Dutch  bottoms  from  Virginia  to 
England  and  Holland.  An  act  of  Parliament,  passed  in 
1651,  required  that  all  goods  brought  to  England  from 
Asia,  Africa,  or  America,  should  be  carried  by  English  or 
colonial  ships.  This  act  reflects  the  ambitious  policy  of 
Cromwell  and  struck  a  blow  at  Dutch  maritime  prosper 
ity.*  It  was,  however,  only  loosely  enforced  during  the 
period  of  the  Commonwealth.  After  the  Restoration 
Parliament  renewed  this  act  and  added  further  restrictions 
(1660).  Certain  colonial  products  (called  enumerated 
articles),  including  sugar,  tobacco,  dye-woods,  and  indigo 
could  be  shipped  only  to  England  or  to  other  English 
colonies. f  In  1663,  an  act  provided  that  all  goods  brought 

*  This  and  other  causes  resulted  in  a  war  between  the  two  nations,  the 
first  of  a  series  in  which  the  Dutch  lost  their  maritime  supremacy. 

t  These  were  articles  that  could  not  be  produced  in  England.  The  list 
of  enumerated  goods  was  changed  many  times  during  the  next  one  hun 
dred  years.  Molasses  and  rice  were  later  added,  and  then  rice  was  allowed 
to  be  shipped  to  ports  of  southern  Europe. 

85 


86 


American  History 


Their 
purpose. 


Some  ef 
fects  of  the 
laws. 


Bad  con 
ditions  in 
Virginia. 


to  the  colonies  must  come  from  or  through  English  ports. 
By  an  act  of  1672  goods  shipped  from  one  colony  to  another 
must  either  go  by  way  of  England  or  pay  a  high  duty  in 
colonial  ports. 

English  merchants  and  ship  owners  were  to  reap  the  benefit  of 
this  legislation:  (1)  By  becoming  the  only  buyers  of  certain 
colonial  products;  (2)  by  becoming  the  only  sellers  in  colonial 
markets;  and  (3)  by  the  exclusion  of  Dutch  competition  in  the 
carrying  business.  The  English  Government  would  gain  in 
creased  revenue  from  the  duties  upon  goods  going  to  and  coming 
from  the  colonies. 

The  effect  of  these  laws  in  Virginia  was  marked.  The 
value  of  tobacco  fell  to  a  low  point,  and  the  cost  of  clothing, 
furniture,  and  implements  rose.*  English  vessels  charged 
higher  freight  rates  than  Dutch  because  the  latter  were 
built  more  cheaply,  conveyed  larger  cargoes,  and  carried 
fewer  sailors. 

These  conditions,  and  the  fact  that  the  planters  unwisely 
devoted  themselves  almost  exclusively  to  tobacco  raising, 
caused  great  economic  distress.  Discontent  arose,  which 
was  augmented  by  abuses  in  the  government  of  Virginia. 
Sir  William  Berkeley,  who  had  again  become  governor, 


Signature  of  Governor  Berkeley 

managed  to  control  the  House  of  Burgesses  completely, 
by  proroguing  it  from  time  to  -time,  instead  of  holding  new 
elections.  His  council,  appointed  by  himself,  constituted 
an  aristocratic  ring;  the  franchise  was  limited  to  free 
holders;  heavy  taxes  were  levied  and  public  money  was 

*  Whereas  before  1651  a  pair  of  shoes  could  be  bought  for  twelve  pounds 
of  tobacco,  in  1657  the  price  was  fifty  pounds.  Bruce,  Economic  and 
Social  History  of  Virginia,  II,  375-376.  Similar  results  followed  in  Mary 
land  and  later  in  North  Carolina. 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  87 

squandered;  and  incompetent  and  dishonest  officers  were 
appointed. 

Open  resistance  came  about  when  Governor  Berkeley  Bacon's 
refused  to  render  efficient  aid  in  the  defence  of  the  fron-  f6e7b6elllon* 
tier  against  Indian  attacks.  Nathaniel  Bacon,  a  young 
planter,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  militia  for  this  pur 
pose,  and  thus  brought  upon  himself  the  wrath  of  Berkeley. 
After  a  complicated  series  of  attacks  and  counter  attacks 
between  the  rival  factions,  Bacon  died,  and  his  party, 
which  was  mainly  composed  of  the  poorer  classes  and  the 
small  farmers,  dissolved.  In  the  main  the  rebellion  ac 
complished  its  object;  reforms  were  made  in  the  govern 
ment,  and  the  Indians  were  checked. 

The  overproduction  of  tobacco  later  caused  economic  de 
pression.  Determined  efforts  were  made  by  the  colonists,  to 
decrease,  by  agreement  and  by  legislation,  the  amount  of  to 
bacco  planted,  but  these  efforts  failed.  In  1682,  riots  ensued  and 
many  fields  were  devastated  for  the  purpose  of  decreasing  the 
supply.  In  later  years,  when  transportation  rates  decreased 
and  the  English  demand  increased,  tobacco  growing  became 
more  remunerative. 

Under  the  Commonwealth,  and  immediately  after  the  Efforts  of 
Restoration,  special  boards  or  committees  of  the  Privy  govern™6 
Council  in  England  were  appointed  to  have  charge  of  ment  to 
colonial   affairs.     Between   1675  and   1688  a  committee  colonies, 
known  as  the  Lords  of  Trade  had  exercised  authority  in 
(1)  settling  disputes  between  colonies;   (2)  collecting  in 
formation  concerning  trade;   (3)  advising  the  King  and 
colonial  governors  as  to  details  of  administration;  (4)  en 
deavoring  to  bring  the  colonies  into  accord  with  the  policy 
of  the  home  government,  and  especially  (5)  trying  to  se 
cure  obedience  to  the  navigation  laws.     For  the  purpose 
last   mentioned,    customs   officers   were   stationed  in  the 
colonies,  but  these  seldom  worked  in  harmony  with  the 
colonial  governors.     The  system  of  control  was,   in  its 
actual  workings,  very  imperfect.     There  existed  in  Amer 
ica  no  adequate  machinery  for  the  enforcement  of  the  will 


American  History 


Self-gov 
ernment  in 
New  Eng 
land. 


A  liberal 
policy 
toward 
Connecti 
cut  and 
Rhode 
Island. 


of  the  home  government,  and  the  extent  to  which  the 
colonies  could  govern  themselves  was  not  definitely  stated 
or  agreed  upon. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  periods  of  the  Civil  War 
and  Commonwealth  were  favorable  to  self-government  in 
the  colonies.  In  New  England,  especially,  this  was  taken 
advantage  of,  with  results  that  became  apparent  after  the 
Restoration.  Massachusetts  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  home  government  because  of  its  independence  and  its 
slowness  in  acknowledging  the  King;  and  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island  because  their  governments  had  been  es 
tablished  without  legal  authorization  by  the  mother  coun 
try.  The  latter  colonies  now  sent  agents  to  England  ask 
ing  for  charters.  John  Winthrop  for  Connecticut  (1662), 
and  John  Clark  for  Rhode  Island  (1663),  succeeded 
in  this  mission.  Their  charters  left  them  in  reality  little 
republics,  electing  all  their  officers,  and  having  only  a 
general  dependence  upon  the  crown.  The  Connecticut 
charter  accomplished  the  overthrow  of  New  Haven  Colony, 
whose  inhabitants  had  offended  the  home  government  by 
their  kind  treatment  of  two  regicide  judges  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  conviction  of  Charles  I.  The  union  of 
these  two  colonies  strengthened  their  defence  against  the 
Dutch  and  the  Indians. 

In  1664,  complaints  against  Massachusetts  becoming 
more  frequent,  a  royal  commissioner  was  sent  to  examine 
into  conditions  there. 


Charges 
preferred 
against 
Massachu 
setts. 


The  Massachusetts  Government  was  accused  of  exceeding  its 
authority  by  extending  its  jurisdiction  over  the  Mason  and 
Gorges  grants  north  of  the  Merrimac  River,  and  by  having 
erected  a  mint  and  coined  money.  The  restriction  of  the  suffrage 
to  church  members  had  been  condemned  by  Charles  II,  who  de 
manded  its  extension  to  all  property  holders;  he  also  required 
that  the  English  Church  should  be  tolerated  there.  The  colony 
was  charged  with  evading  these  requirements.  The  persecution 
of  the  Quakers  was  another  cause  of  offence.  The  colony's 
treatment  of  the  royal  commissioners  was  anything  but  respectful, 
and  it  practised  a  tantalizing  policy  of  delay  in  all  of  its  rela- 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  89 

tions  with  the  home  government.  It  endeavored  to  preserve 
its  original  independence  by  denying  the  right  of  appeal  from 
colonial  courts  to  England,  and  by  denying  the  validity  of  acts 
of  Parliament  which  were  not  also  passed  by  the  colonial  Assem 
bly.  Most  serious  was  the  charge  preferred  by  royal  customs 
officials  that  the  people  of  Massachusetts  systematically  violated 
the  navigation  laws,  and  that  the  colonial  government  connived 
at  such  disobedience.  This  practice,  it  was  represented,  greatly 
decreased  the  royal  revenues. 

Here  were  sufficient  grounds  for  the  annulment  of  the  The  policy 
Massachusetts  charter,  and  this  was  legally  accomplished  pg^f 
by  order  of  an  English  court  in  1684.  A  temporary  gov-  control, 
ernment  was  established,  but  without  a  legislative  assembly. 
At  the  same  time  plans  were  made  for  annulling  the  other 
New  England  charters  and  for  the  union  of  all  these  colonies 
under  a  governor-general;  also,  for  the  destruction  of  the 
proprietors'  interests  in  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  the 
Carolinas — a  project  never  executed.  Such  was  the  policy 
of  imperial  control  proposed  by  the  Lords  of  Trade  and 
based  upon  their  experience  in  dealing  with  the  colonies. 
The  arguments  in  favor  of  it  were:  (1)  More  direct  con- 
'trol  might  thus  be  exercised;  (2)  the  navigation  laws  could 
be  enforced;  (3)  defence  against  the  French  and  the  Ind 
ians  could  be  more  effective.  This  policy  was  advo 
cated  by  a  class  of  officials  and  dissatisfied  persons  in  the 
colonies,  as  well  as  by  the  commercial  class  in  England. 
It  would  have  been  a  radical  departure  from  the  earlier 
policy,  and  its  enforcement  would  have  interrupted  the 
tendency  towards  self-government  that  prevailed  every 
where  in  the  colonies. 

The  Duke  of  York  became  King  James  II  of  England   Despotic 
in  1685.     The  next  year  he  appointed  Edmund  Andros  j^™'^ 
Governor-General  of  New  England,  who  began  the  policy  Andros, 
of  consolidation  by  dissolving  the  governments  of  Plymouth,   overthrow. 
Rhode   Island,   and   Connecticut.*     Later  Andres's   au 
thority  was  extended  over  New  York  and  New  Jersey.     In 

*  The  charter  of  Connecticut  was  not  surrendered.     For  the  charter  oak 
tradition,  see  Fiske,  Beginnings,  367-368.     Lodge,  English  Colonies,  380. 


90 


American  History 


Results  in 
New  York. 


In  Mary 
land. 


Massachusetts  his  enforcement  of  the  King's  orders  re 
sulted  in  the  complete  overthrow  of  self-government. 
When  rumors  of  the  revolution  in  England  against  James  II 
(1688)  reached  America,  Andros  was  imprisoned  and  the 
people  temporarily  resumed  their  former  government. 
In  1691,  a  new  charter  was  given  to  Massachusetts  by 
William  and  Mary  which  represented  a  compromise  be 
tween  the  proposed  policy  of  control  and  the  former 
freedom  of  self-government.  The  legislature  of  the  colony 
was  made  elective ;  *  but  the  governor  was  appointed  by 
the  crown  instead  of  being  elected,  as  formerly.  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut  resumed  their  charter  govern 
ments,  and  these  were  not  again  disturbed. 

In  New  York,  also,  the  Andros  government  was  over 
thrown.  A  movement,  led  by  Jacob  Leisler,  established 
a  popular  government.  The  efforts  of  Leisler  to  continue 
as  governor  of  the  colony  were  defeated  by  a  governor, 
Sloughter,  sent  from  England.  "  Leisler' s  rebellion,"  so 
called,  was  put  down  very  harshly.  Under  the  new 
regime,  however,  New  York  secured,  what  it  had  never 
had,  a  regular  representative  assembly,  f 

The  anti-Catholic  character  of  the  Revolution  in  Eng 
land  gave  occasion  for  an  uprising  of  the  Protestant  col 
onists  of  Maryland  against  the  Baltimore  rule.  They  were 
successful  in  gaining  control  of  the  colonial  government, 
and  William  and  Mary  favored  their  cause  by  refusing  to 
restore  to  Lord  Baltimore  his  rights  under  the  charter.  So, 
for  about  twenty-five  years  Maryland  was  governed  as  a 
royal  province.  Then,  in  1715,  the  Baltimore  proprietor 
ship  was  reestablished,  when  the  heir  was  a  Protestant. 

The  English  Revolution  and  its  accompanying  move 
ments  in  America  interrupted  the  execution  of  the  im 
perial  policy  put  in  operation  under  Charles  II  and 

*  While  the  lower  house  was  chosen  by  the  people,  the  Council  was 
elected  by  joint  ballot  in  both  houses,  the  governor  having  power  to 
reject  members  thus  elected. 

t  One  such  body  had  met  in  1683  (see  p.  74). 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  91 

James  II.  Whether  under  the  new  line  of  monarchs 
there  was  to  be  a  pursuance  of  this  policy,  or  a  reversal  to 
the  earlier  one,  was  a  question  of  great  importance. 

COLONIAL    LIFE    IN    1690 

What  had  a  century  of  English  activity  in  colonization  New 
accomplished  on  the  American  continent?  A  distinct 
change  in  the  moving  causes  of  emigration  may  be  noted,  tion. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  commercial 
motives  were  uppermost.  Colonization  upon  this  basis  was 
not  successful,  but  during  the  century  other  motives  be 
came  predominant.  Primary  among  these  was  the  desire 
to  escape  troublous  religious  conditions  in  European  coun 
tries.  Frequently  distinct,  but  often  combined  with  the 
religious  motive,  was  another  which  was  purely  economic. 
"The  desire  to  better  their  fortunes  was  perhaps  the  most 
fundamental  and  enduring  consideration  that  influenced 
immigrants."  *  The  poor  and  the  unsuccessful,  the  ad 
venturous  and  the  ambitious,  those  socially  despised  or 
legally  under  the  ban,  could  get  in  America  a  new  start  in 
building  fortune  and  reputation.  Freedom  from  the 
burdensome  conditions  of  European  society,  the  oppor 
tunity  to  work,  and  the  chance  to  become  economically 
independent,  were  tempting  the  best  blood  of  Europe  to 
this  fresh  field. 

The  great  underlying  economic  fact  in  this  colonization  HOW  land 
was  the  existence  in  America  of  boundless  areas  of  culti-  w*?r*<J~b 
vable  land  that  might  be  had  upon  easy  terms.     In  New  settlers. 
England,  land  was  uniformly  granted  without  charge  to 
individuals  and  to  groups  of  settlers.     All  the  colonies 
south  of  New  England  were  originally  upon  a  proprietary 
basis,  and  the  proprietors  (whether  individuals  or  com 
panies),  expected  to  profit  by  the  disposal  of  land,  as  well 
as  by  trade.     They  often  advertised  in  Europe  for  emi 
grants,  and  frequently  gave  farms  freely  to  settlers.     Only 

*  Cheney,  The  European  Background  of  American  History,  168. 


92 


American  History 


New 

England  in 
1690. 


Physical 
conditions 
determine 
the  meth 
od  of  set 
tlement. 


in  Pennsylvania  was  it  customary  to  sell  the  land  outright. 
Elsewhere,  it  was  commonly  granted  upon  the  payment  of 
a  "quit-rent/'  i.  e.,  an  annual  fee  (usually  one  shilling  for 
fifty  acres),  payable  to  the  proprietor,  or  to  the  King  when 
the  colony  became  royal.  The  difficulty  of  collecting  quit- 
rents  rendered  this  source  of  revenue  a  disappointment. 

The  amount  of  land  that  might  be  granted  to  one  person  was 
usually  limited.  But  the  proportion  of  immigrants  who  were  too 
poor  to  pay  their  passage  and  to  establish  themselves  as  farmers, 
was  very  large.  These  came  and  were  settled  at  the  expense  of 
others,  who  thus  secured  "head  rights" — usually  fifty  acres  for 
each  person  brought  to  America.  This  is  one  way  in  which  large 
estates  were  built  up.  In  most  cases  the  persons  assisted  were 
indentured  servants;  others  became  tenants  and  paid  rent.  The 
attempts  made  in  several  colonies  to  establish  manors,  upon 
which  the  tenants  were  subject  to  semi-feudal  restrictions,  were 
usually  unsuccessful.  It  was  so  easy  to  become  the  actual  owner 
of  land  that  the  tenant  refused  to  enter  into  such  relations 
with  the  landlord. 

In  1690,  the  English  colonies  contained  nearly  250,000 
inhabitants.  In  New  England  the  physical  geography 
determined  the  industries,  and  these  in  turn  influenced 
social  and  political  conditions.  This  was  a  region  of 
cold  winters  and  short  summers;  a  land  of  hills  and 
forests,  with  a  rugged  sea  coast  and  some  fertile  val 
leys.  The  soil,  generally  light,  had,  because  of  its  stony 
character,  a  peculiar  enduring  quality.  The  rivers  were 
short,  giving  abundant  water  power,  but,  excepting  the 
Connecticut,  little  opportunity  for  navigation.  On  the 
coast  were  numerous  harbors;  the  sea  abounded  in  fish, 
and  the  forests  furnished  the  best  of  timber.  Agriculture 
was  profitable,  grains,  vegetables,  and  stock  being  the 
principal  products.  But  the  difficulties  of  cultivation 
made  small  farms  necessary.  The  Puritans  continued  to 
settle  in  church  communities.  Compactness  of  settle 
ment  was  therefore  a  characteristic  of  New  England;  and 
this  was  further  encouraged  by  the  religious  requirement 
of  regular  church  attendance.  There  were  many  fishing 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  93 

towns  on  the  coast;  and  with  the  surplus  products  of  farms  industries 
and  fisheries,  commerce  soon  became  inevitable.  To  fa-  rd 
cilitate  commerce,  ship  building  naturally  arose.  On  the 
farms  and  in  the  villages  hand-made  clothing,  implements, 
and  furniture  were  used  almost  exclusively.  On  the  rapid 
streams  were  to  be  found  grist-mills  and  saw-mills.  In  the 
towns,  brick,  pottery,  glass,  and  shoes  were  manufactured. 
Everything  was,  of  course,  upon  a  small  scale,  and  scarcely 
beyond  the  stage  of  domestic  manufacture.  Back  of  the 
compactly  settled  region  near  the  coast,  men  exploited  the 
forests  and  traded  with  the  Indians. 

The  small  farm  type  of  agriculture  and  the  variety  of  in-  Social 
dustries  in  New  England  gave  the  best  opportunity  for  e 
the  individual  to  attain  economic  independence.  There 
was  a  tendency  toward  industrial  equality  rather  than 
toward  the  subordination  of  many  laborers  to  a  few  em 
ployers;  and  this  condition  affected  social  and  political 
life.  Democracy  in  society  and  a  democratic  type  of  gov 
ernment  were  noticeable  features  of  New  England  life. 
There  were  here,  as  everywhere  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
aristocratic  distinctions;  the  old  families,  the  official  class, 
and  the  wealthy  were  given  prominence,  both  by  law  and 
by  custom;  but  the  importance  of  the  individual  of  what 
ever  class  was  very  great. 

New  England  was  settled  almost  exclusively  by  Puritans  Religion 
from  England.  In  Massachusetts  the  first  Anglican 
church  was  founded  in  1686,  and  in  Rhode  Island  might  be 
found  Baptists,  Quakers,  and  Jews.  The  type  of  religion 
maintained  under  the  congregational  system  was  very 
severe.  The  ministers  were  the  dominant  class,  and  they 
enforced  the  Puritan  ideals  of  both  public  and  private  con 
duct  most  rigidly.  The  laws  prescribing  the  strict  ob 
servance  of  the  Sabbath  and  restrictions  upon  dress,  are 
examples  of  Puritan  regulation  of  private  conduct;  at  the 
same  time  the  church  was  supported  by  public  taxation. 
In  their  dislike  of  certain  sports  and  diversions  the  Puritans 
excluded  from  their  lives  many  rational  pleasures.  In  the 


94 


American  History 


larger  towns  and  among  the  wealthier  class,  social  diver 
sions  were  common;  but  in  the  small  towns  and  the  country, 
life  was  barren  and  there  was  little  to  relieve  the  hard  daily 
toil  and  the  solemn  devotion  to  rigidly  conceived  duty. 
Education.  Education  was  further  advanced  in  New  England  than 
elsewhere  in  the  colonies.  Here  the  common  school  wras 
maintained  from  the  beginning,  and  there  were  also  many 
grammar  schools.  Harvard  College  wras  founded  in  1636 
at  Cambridge.  While  the  mass  of  people  were  given  a 
rudimentary  education,  the  purpose  of  higher  education 
was  preparation  for  the  ministry.  Theological  discussion 
occupied  the  best  minds  of  New  England;  there  was  little 
or  no  literature  that  had  other  themes.  No  profession  had 
yet  attained  standing  except  the  ministry. 


Witch 
craft. 


Local  gov 
ernment. 


The 

South  in 
1690. 


The  severely  religious  trend  of  thought,  the  barrenness  of  life, 
and  the  dangers  from  Indian  attacks  that  impended  about  the 
year  1691,  account  for  the  occurrence  in  Massachusetts  of  the 
witchcraft  troubles.  The  theory  of  Satanic  manifestations  was 
commonly  held  in  European  countries,  and  there  claimed  its 
thousands  of  victims.  In  Salem  and  surrounding  towns,  two  or 
three  hundred  persons,  some  of  them  being  of  the  highest  char 
acter,  were  accused  of  having  allowed  themselves  to  become  pos 
sessed  by  the  devil.  Of  these,  nineteen  were  judicially  con 
demned  and  were  put  to  death.  The  comparative  brevity  and 
mildness  of  this  outburst  of  religious  fanaticism  testifies  to  the 
real  saneness  of  the  Puritan  mind.  Nowhere  in  the  world  at  this 
time  was  life  more  pure  or  thought  more  elevated. 

In  the  local  government  of  the  New  England  colonies, 
the  town  meeting  and  the  popular  election  of  officers  pre 
served  the  freest  democracy  in  America.  The  colonial  as 
semblies  were  vigorous  bodies,  and  they  exercised  no  little 
control  over  the  towns.  Self-government  gave  to  New 
Englanders  a  political  education  which  in  later  times  had 
important  consequences. 

Life  in  the  Southern  colonies  had  aspects  in  marked  con 
trast  with  the  conditions  existing  in  New  England.  Vir 
ginia  and  Maryland  were  most  alike.  Here  people  lived 
on  scattered  plantations,  with  no  towns  worthy  the  name. 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  95 

Physical  environment  largely  accounts  for  this  method  of  The  influ- 
settlement.  While  attempts  were  made  at  raising  other  p^cL 
products  than  tobacco,  all  were  abandoned,  except  corn,  geography, 
the  staple  food  grain.  The  same  fate  befell  the  manu 
facturing  industries  that  were  tried  at  various  times;  me 
chanics  were  able  to  get  land  so  cheaply  that  they  drifted 
into  tobacco  raising.  The  rivers  of  the  South  accommo 
dated  the  ocean-going  vessels  of  the  time,  and  so  there  was 
no  necessity  for  towns  as  market  places.  So  deeply  did  the 
rivers  penetrate  this  region  and  so  plentiful  were  the  rich 
lands,  that  during  the  Restoration  period  the  estates  rap 
idly  increased  in  size,  and  the  "plantation  system"  became 
fully  developed.  One  more  element,  cheap  labor,  con 
tributed  to  make  this  system  possible.  Thousands  of  in 
dentured  servants  came  annually  to  the  Southern  col 
onies,  and  toward  the  end  of  this  period  negro  slaves 
increased  in  numbers. 

The  great  majority  of  the  people  in  the  Southern  col-  industries 
onies  were  of  English  stock.  In  Virginia  the  contrast  be-  ^oith. 
tween  large  plantations  and  small  farms  was  marked, 
while  in  North  Carolina  there  were  only  scattered  small 
farms.  South  Carolina  was  distinguished  by  having  a 
large  city,  Charleston,  which  was  the  centre  of  com 
mercial  and  social  life.  Here  lived  the  large  planters  who 
dominated  the  life  of  the  colony.  Besides  tobacco,  corn, 
and  live-stock,  the  Carolinas  produced  the  naval  stores — 
tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine.  Throughout  the  South,  cot 
ton  and  flax  were  raised  on  a  small  scale  and  were  worked 
by  hand  into  forms  suitable  for  domestic  use.  But  every 
where  in  the  colonies  woollens  were  the  chief  article  of 
domestic  manufacture.  The  Southern  colonies  exported 
large  quantities  of  their  staple  products.  Few  vessels  were 
constructed  here.  Ships  owned  by  New  Englanders  brought 
to  them  fish  from  the  North,  tropical  products  and  slaves  from 
the  West  Indies,  and  manufactured  articles  from  Europe. 

While  many  Puritans  settled  in  the  South,  especially  in  southern 
Maryland  and  South  Carolina,  the  majority  of  the  people  society- 


96  American  History 

were  Anglicans.  Religious  convictions  exercised  no  such 
influence  as  in  New  England.  Both  social  and  political 
life  felt  the  influence  of  the  dominant  economic  interest 
in  the  plantation  colonies.  Tendencies  worked  toward 
aristocracy  rather  than  toward  democracy.  The  home  of 
the  planter  was  the  centre  of  a  small  community.  In 
dentured  servants  and  slaves  tilled  his  broad  acres,  while 
other  workmen  made  the  common  implements,  furniture, 
and  clothing.  The  plantation  was  self-sufficing,  except 
for  the  finer  qualities  of  cloths,  furnishings,  books,  medi 
cines,  and  jewelry,  which  were  imported  from  Europe. 
The  small  farmer  could  hardly  compete  with  the  planter 
and  his  family,  either  economically  or  sociall'y,  and  he  con 
sequently  tended  to  move  westward  to  the  frontier,  which 
had  not  yet  reached  the  mountains.  Here,  too,  he  found 
cheaper  land. 

Local  gov-  In  the  South,  as  in  New  England,  tfre  colonists  adapted 
ernment.  ^Q  ^heir  new  environment  certain  forms  of  local  govern 
ment  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  at  home.  The 
smallest  local  division,  the  parish,  became  less  important 
than  was  the  town  in  New  England,  because  of  the  sparse- 
ness  of  population.  The  parish  was  governed  by  a  group 
of  men  called  the  vestry,  which  had  charge  of  church  af 
fairs  and  the  relief  of  the  poor.  The  most  important  func 
tions  of  local  government  were  exercised  in  the  larger  unit, 
the  county.  A  board  of  justices,  known  as  the  county 
court,  levied  taxes  and  made  local  regulations,  besides 
sitting  as  a  court  to  try  cases.  The  sheriff  was  an  im 
portant  county  officer,  having  in  his  hands  the  collection 
and  expenditure  of  public  money.  Members  of  the  county 
court  were  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  vacancies  in 
the  vestry  were  filled  by  the  remaining  vestrymen.  Thus, 
in  the  absence  of  town  meetings  and  popular  elections, 
local  government  in  the  South  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
influential  planter  class. 

In  the  South,  both  religious  life  and  educational  inter 
ests  suffered  on  account  of  the  method  of  settlement,  the 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  97 

sparseness  of  population,  and  the  difficulty  of  travel.  The 
Anglican  ministers  in  these  colonies  wrere  not  the  intel 
lectual  or  religious  leaders  of  the  people.  Efforts  to  es 
tablish  public  schools  were  largely  failures,  though  many 
private  elementary  schools  were  maintained.  The  plant 
ers*  sons  were  taught  at  home,  and  often  completed  their 
education  in  English  schools  and  colleges. 

Conditions  of  life  were  much  more  varied  in  the  Middle  The  Mid- 
colonies  than  in  either  New  England  or  the  South.     The  jJJj-^JQ 
people,  as  we  have  seen  (pp.  74,  82),  were  of  many  nation-   1690. 
alities.     While   agriculture   was   the   dominant   industry, 


Dutch  Cottage  in  Beaver  Street,  New  York,  1679 


there  were  many  flourishing  towns  and  two  large  ports, 
New  York  and  Philadelphia.  Intercolonial  trade  and 
foreign  commerce  stood  second  to  agriculture  in  import 
ance.  Philadelphia  was  the  centre  of  trade  for  the  region 
bordering  on  Delaware  Bay  and  River;  and  its  shipping  industries, 
carried  abroad  large  quantities  of  grains,  meats,  and  furs, 
returning  with  imports  from  the  West  Indies  and  Europe. 
Ship-building  early  became  an  important  industry  in 
Pennsylvania.  New  York  City  was  the  centre  of  com 
merce  for  the  Hudson  River  region.  Here  the  fur  trade 


98 


American  History 


Social  life. 


The  In 
dians  of 
eastern 
North 
America. 


was  of  greater  consequence  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
colonies. 

Life  in  New  York  presented  aristocratic  tendencies. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  the  presence  of  large  estates  on 
the  Hudson  and  the  importance  of  the  official  class  in  New 
York  City.  But  elsewhere  in  the  Middle  colonies  there  ex 
isted  economic  and  social  equality.  The  professional 
classes  were  at  this  time  weak  and  unimportant.  There 
was  a  great  variety  of  religious  sects.  Dutch  Reformed, 
Congregational,  Lutheran,  and  Jewish  churches  existed 
in  New  York;  while  Quakers,  Lutherans,  and  other 
Protestant  sects  flourished  in  Pennsylvania.  Nowhere  in 
these  colonies  were  public  schools  to  be  found.  Education 
was  at  a  low  stage  in  New  York,  but  there  were  good 
private  schools  in  Pennsylvania. 

Local  government  in  .the  Middle  colonies  included  both 
towns  and  counties;  but  here  the  functions  were  quite 
equally  divided  between  these  organizations,  instead  of 
being  chiefly  confined  to  one  or  the  other,  as  in  New  Eng 
land  and  the  South. 

THE    COLONISTS    AND    THE    INDIANS. 

The  colonists  came  into  contact  with  three  great  groups 
of  Indians.  The  largest  of  these  constituted  the  Algon 
quin  family,  occupying  nearly  all  of  the  region  east  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  as  wrell  as  the  Ohio  and  upper 
Mississippi  basins.  Prominent  in  this  family  were  the 
Narragansetts,  Pequots,  Powhatans,  Dela\vares,  Illinois, 
and  Ojibwas.  South  of  Kentucky,  extending  to  Florida 
and  the  Gulf,  was  the  Muskhogean  family.  The  Chicka- 
saws,  Choctaws,  Creeks,  and  Seminoles  belonged  to  this 
family.  The  Iroquois  Indians  occupied  the  region  of 
central  New  York  State  and  upper  Canada  (see  pp.  105, 
106),  while  an  independent  branch  of  this  family  was  situ 
ated  on  the 'western  borders  of  the  Carolinas. 

The  earliest  settlers  in  the  English  colonies  were  in 
debted  to  the  Indians  in  several  ways.  They  learned  the 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration 


99 


Indians'  methods  of  hunting,  fishing,  and  trapping;  also, 
the  value  of  maize  and  how  to  produce  it  upon  new  land. 
Thus  colonization  was  assisted  by  a  more  available  food 
supply.  The  Indians'  canoe  and  their  methods  of  travel 
and  fighting  were  also  adopted  by  the  settlers. 


Kl  Sioux 


Location  of  Indians  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 

On  the  other  hand,  the  natives  soon  acquired  from  the 
whites  tools  and  utensils,  especially  guns;  these,  together 
with  cloth  and  horses,  changed  in  many  ways  the  character 
of  their  daily  life.  They  learned  few  virtues,  but  acquired 
destructive  vices,  especially  the  use  of  intoxicants.  Some 
efforts  were  made  by  the  English  to  convert  the  Indians, 
but  they  were  conducted,  on  the  whole,  without  enthusiasm 
or  persistence.  The  loud  profession  of  missionary  zeal  with 
which  the  English  colonization  began  was  not  made  good. 


100 


American  History 


The  rela 
tions  of  the 
Indians 
with  the 
settlers. 


Disputes 
overland. 


In  the  New  England  colonies,  Massachusetts  especially,  some 
efforts  were  made  to  convert  the  Indians.  These  were  most  suc 
cessful  in  the  work  of  John  Eliot,  who  brought  about  four  thou 
sand  Indians  to  adopt  Christianity  and  civilized  ways  of  living. 
John  and  Charles  Wesley  made  unsuccessful  missionary  efforts 
in  Georgia. 

The  history  of  Indian  relations  in  colonial  times  is  one 
of  continual  strife.  This  was  inevitable  at  that  period  in 
the  contact  between  a  superior  and  an  inferior  race.  Of 
incidental  causes  for  these  troubles  there  was  a  large 
variety;  the  vicious  and  the  drunken,  whether  whites  or 
Indians,  were  especially  numerous  on  the  frontier,  and 
they  were  ever  ready  to  commit  outrages  and  to  begin 
quarrels.  But  the  fundamental  cause  for  this  condition 
was  the  land  question.  The  character  of  Indian  industry, 
which  was  mainly  hunting  and  fishing,  with  comparatively 
slight  attention  to  agriculture,  and  the  frequent  movements 
of  most  tribes  from  one  locality  to  another,  made  the  In 
dians  occupants  rather  than  owners  of  the  land  in  the  true 
sense.  In  their  simplicity  and  short-sightedness  they  were 
ever  ready  to  part  with  their  right  of  occupancy;  but  they 
did  not  comprehend  the  white  man's  idea  of  permanent 
transfer  and  possession.  The  purchase  of  Indian  lands 
was  a  universal  practice  in  colonial  times.  The  different 
colonial  governments  undertook  to  regulate  this  subject 
by  law,  prohibiting  the  settlers  from  occupying  lands 
until  the  Indian  title  was  extinguished.  The  laws  en 
joined  in  many  ways  the  fair  treatment*  of  the  Indians  in 
other  transactions;  for  instance,  the  sale  of  fire-arms  and 
liquors  was  quite  generally  prohibited.  These  laws,  how 
ever,  were  little  obeyed. 

Trouble  arose  as  soon  as  the  natives  realized  the  slow 
but  sure  advance  of  the  whites  into  the  country  and  the 
permanency  of  this  process.  Hunting  grounds  were  de 
stroyed,  and  the  strip  between  the  frontier  of  settlement 
and  the  Alleghany  Mountains  became  gradually  narrower. 
The  Indians  were  able  to  make  but  spasmodic,  and  on  the 
whole,  feeble,  resistance  to  the  advance  of  settlement  be- 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  101 

cause  they  did  not  present  a  united  front;  and  this  in  turn 
was  owing  to  their  lack  of  political  organization. 

The  lowest  organization  of  social  and  political  life  among  the  political 
Indians  was  the  clan — a  group  of  related  families.  Clans  elected  organiza- 
sachems,  and  chiefs,  or  war  leaders.  The  number  of  these 
officers  varied  according  to  the  number  of  available  men;  their 
authority  was  also  a  matter  of  popularity  and  influence.  The 
clans  were  united  into  tribes,  the  governing  body  of  which  was 
the  tribal  council  composed  of  the  chiefs  just  mentioned.  The 
council  had  authority  over  questions  of  war  and  peace,  and  inter 
tribal  relations.  Of  higher  organizations  among  the  eastern 
Indians  the  only  permanent  example  was  the  Iroquois  confed 
eracy  with  which  the  English  and  Dutch  settlers  were  in  alliance 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  There  were  temporary  leagues 
among  other  tribes  at  various  times;  but  in  the  main  the  settlers 
were  confronted  by  separate  tribes,  with  vacillating  policies, 
rather  than  by  a  compact  nation  capable  of  effectually  resisting 
the  invasion  of  their  lands. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  result  was  inevitable: 
civilization  triumphed  over  savagery,  doubtless  through 
the  commission  of  innumerable  wrongs,  in  our  judgment 
of  which  we  must  remember  the  ethical  standards  of  that 
time  and  the  failure  of  each  race  to  comprehend  the  other's 
point  of  view. 

To   understand  the  real  meaning  of  this   century  of  The  cen- 
colonization  in  America,  we  must   take  account  of  two  onization" 
general  facts.     One  is   the  preservation  among  the  col-  shows  two 
onists   of  the  old  European  life  in  a  new  environment;   tendencies, 
the  other  is  the  tendency  toward  a  different  type  of  life 
under  the  new  conditions.     At  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  colonies  were  in  reality  an  outlying  part  of 
Europe.     Isolated  from  each  other,  their  social  and  eco 
nomic  relations  were  chiefly  with  the  mother  country. 
The  creation  of  even  the  weakest  semblance  to  a  national  The  preser- 
life  was  the  work  of  the  next  century  and  the  outcome  of  European 
many  struggles  against  Indian  and  French  foes  here  in  cjviiiza- 
America,   and   finally   against   the   English   government. 
Until  then,  the  most  striking  characteristic  of  colonial  life 
is  the  conservative  preservation  of  manners  and  customs, 


102  American  History 

industries   and   ideas,  political  rights  and  processes  that 

were  the  fruit  of  centuries  of  growth  in  Europe. 

The  Turning  now  to  the  new  tendencies,  we  find  a  growth 

toward^      away  from  social  class  distinctions  and  toward  greater  in- 

freedom.      dustrial  and  political  freedom  than  Old  World  conditions 

permitted.     There  were  several  reasons  for  this :     (1)  The 

colonists  were  mainly  from  the  middle  and  lower  classes, 

those  least  favored   by  aristocratic  institutions.     (2)  In 


Palisaded  Indian  Village 

From  De  Bry 

America  the  struggle  for  existence  was  at  first  hard,  tend 
ing  to  place  all  men  upon  a  basis  of  social  equality.  (3)  The 
free  ownership  of  land,  and  the  unlimited  supply  of  new 
land  made  an  oppressive  landlord  system  impossible. 
(4)  The  removal  of  monarchical  control  gave  opportunity 
for  the  rise  into  prominence  of  those  free  local  institutions 
with  which  Englishmen  had  been  in  a  measure  familiar. 

The  keynote  of  this  tendency  is  democracy.  The  seven 
teenth  century  saw  its  beginnings,  but  saw  also  the  begin 
ning  of  a  policy  of  imperial  control  (see  pp.  87,  89)  that 
threatened  its  development.  The  problem  of  eighteenth- 
century  colonial  history  is  the  balancing  of  these  two 


The  Colonies  After  the  Restoration  103 

forces:  the  political  and  economic  freedom  of  colonial  life 
versus  control  exercised  by  the  home  government  through 
its  agents  in  America.  Which  of  these  forces  was  destined 
to  become  dominant  ? 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Charles  IPs  policy  towards  the  New  England  Colonies. 
Fisher,  Colonial  Era,  149-151.     Lodge,  English  Colonies,  376- 
377;  389-390.     Fiske,  Beginnings  of  New  England,   191-198. 
Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  166-170. 

2.  Bacon's  Rebellion.     Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  II,  54-67;  96-107. 
Thwaites,  78-79.     Lodge,  19-23. 

3.  The  rule  of  Andros.     Fiske,  Beginnings  of  New  England, 
267-278.     Fisher,  Colonial  Era,  159-164. 

4.  Relations  of  England  with  the  colonies.     Thwaites,  The 
Colonies,   166-167.     Lodge,  354-361.     Elson,   History    of    the 
United  States,  120-127. 

5.  Show  how  the  economic  law  of  supply  and  demand  as  de 
termining  price  is  illustrated  in  this  chapter. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  facts  showing  the  colonists'  love  of  self-govern 
ment  in  this  period. 

7.  Was  the  proposed  policy  of  imperial  control  a  reasonable 
one?     Andrews,  Colonial  Self-government,  36-40. 

8.  On  indentured  servants,  see  Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  II,  176- 
189.    Bogart,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  78-83.    On 
slavery,  Fiske,  190-203.     Bogart,  83-86. 

9.  The  colonists'  relations  with  Indians.     Fiske,   Beginnings 
of  New  England,  199-206.     Coman,  Industrial  History  of  the 
United  States,  43-45. 

10.  Education    in    the    Colonies.     Lodge,    English    Colonies, 
464-466.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  No.  95.     Fiske,  Old  Vir 
ginia,  II,  116-119;  123-129;  245-254. 

11.  Colonial   religion.     Lodge,    English    Colonies,    429-438. 
Earle,  the  Sabbath  in  Puritan  New  England. 

]  2.   How  may  the  colonies  be  grouped  according  to  industries  ? 
Andrews,  334-336. 

13.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  7. 

14.  Fiction.    Goodwin,  White  Aprons  (Virginia).    Hawthorne, 
Scarlet    Letter    (Puritans).      Bynner,   The    Begum's  Daughter 
(New  York). 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  FRENCH  IN  AMERICA 


Revival  of 
French 
coloniza 
tion. 


First 

period, 

1603-1635. 


Cham- 
plain. 


THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   COLONIZATION 

THE  work  of  French  explorers  and  the  feeble  at 
tempts  made  at  colonization  during  the  first  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (see  pp.  28-30)  were  interrupted  by  un 
favorable  European  conditions.  The  victory  of  Henry  IV 
over  the  warring  factions  that  opposed  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  France,  and  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598)*  issued 
by  him,  finally  brought  peace;  and  with  peace  came  a  re 
vived  interest  in  American  exploration.  During  the  en 
tire  century  French  fishermen  had  visited  the  banks  off 
Newfoundland  and  had  traded  with  the  Indians  of  the  ad 
jacent  coasts.  It  seemed  natural,  therefore,  that  this 
region  should  be  the  scene  of  French  colonization. 

For  a  third  of  a  century,  the  principal  figure  in  this  story 
is  that  of  Samuel  de  Champlain,  whose  strong  character 
and  persistent  labors  have  won  the  greatest  admiration. 
Like  many  other  soldiers  of  the  wars  of  Henry  IV,  Cham- 
plain  found  an  outlet  for  his  energies  in  time  of  peace 
by  undertaking  voyages  of  discovery,  f  When,  in  1604, 
De  Monts  was  granted  by  the  government  of  France  a 
monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  between  the  parallels  40°  and 
46°,  Champlain,  as  royal  geographer,  sailed  with  him  to 

*  This  Edict  gave  the  Huguenots  privileges,  including  legal  equality 
and  religious  freedom,  except  in  certain  cities. 

t  He  first  visited  Central  America  and  Mexico.  While  at  Panama  he 
commented  upon  the  advantages  that  would  accrue  from  the  construction 
of  an  isthmian  canal. 

104 


The  French  in  America 


105 


found  a  colony.     This  became  Port  Royal,  on  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  at  the  present  site  of  Annapolis,  Nova  Scotia. 

For  several  years  Champlain  led  exploring  expeditions  down 
the  New  England  coast,  nearly  as  far  as  Rhode  Island.  In  these 
and  similar  explorations  in  the  St.  Lawrence  valley,  he  took  care 
ful  note  of  geographical  features  and  Indian  life.  His  accounts 
are  extremely  valuable  for  his  descriptions  of  Indian  life  before 
its  contact  with  civilization. 

The  renewal  of  the  De  Monts  grant  in  1608  brought  His 
Champlain  to  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  where  he  founded  JJJJJf1^ 
Quebec  in  that  year.     It  was  his  purpose  "to  find  a  way  policy. 
to  China,  avoiding  at  the  same  time  the  cold  of  the  North 

and  the   heat 
of    the  South." 
Upon  the  basis 
of    stories    of 
"great    waters" 
that  lay  to  the 
westward,  Cham- 
plain 
k 
$ 


c 


the  nearness 
of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  He  was 

The  Explorations  of  Champlain  mindful    also    of 

the    advantages 

to  be  gained  from  the  fur  trade  and  from  discoveries  of 
gold  mines.  The  conversion  of  the  Indians  soon  became 
another  prominent  motive  in  his  work.  He  bargained 
with  the  Algonquin  Indians  to  assist  them  in  their  wars 
with  the  Iroquois  if  they  would  help  him  in  his  western 
explorations.  This  agreement  was  kept  when,  in  1609, 
Champlain  accompanied  a  war  party  of  his  Indian  friends 
up  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Richelieu  rivers  to  the  beautiful 
Lake  Champlain,  which  he  was  the  first  white  man  to 
visit.  Here  they  met  and  defeated  an  Iroquois  party.  In 
1615,  Champlain  ascended  the  Ottawa  River,  entered 
Georgian  Bay  and  Lake  Huron,  and,  returning  by  way 


106 


American  History 


The 

Iroquois 

Indians. 


Their 
influence. 


The  second 
period  of 
French 
coloniza 
tion,  1635- 
1663. 


of  Lake  Ontario,  entered  the  heart  of  the  Iroquois  country 
(now  central  New  York  State).  Here  his  Indian  allies 
unsuccessfully  attacked  a  fortified  Iroquois  village. 

The  Iroquois  were  "  the  fiercest,  boldest,  most  politic,  and  most 
ambitious  savages  to  whom  the  American  forest  has  ever  given 
birth."  *  Their  villages  were  well  fortified  by  palisades.  Two 
other  facts  gave  the  Iroquois  great  strength.  (1)  Their  geo 
graphical  position,  upon  the  head-waters  of  streams  flowing  in 
every  direction,  made  both  defence  and  attack  easier  for  them 
than  for  their  enemies.  (2)  We  find  among  the  Iroquois  the 
best  example  of  a  permanent  confederacy  among  Indian  tribes 
north  of  Mexico.  The  five  "  nations  "  of  this  confederacy  were 
the  Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Onondagas,  Cayugas,  and  Senecas.  For 
two  generations  they  scarcely  ceased  their  attacks  upon  the  St. 
Lawrence  settlements  (Quebec,  Three  Rivers,  Montreal),  murder 
ing  the  inhabitants,  terrifying  the  garrisons,  and  thus  deterring 
greatly  the  progress  of  that  colony.  In  the  meantime  the  Iro 
quois  established  friendly  relations  with  the  Dutch.  When  the 
English  conquered  New  York  they  succeeded  to  the  Iroquois 
friendship,  continued  to  furnish  them  with  guns  in  trade,  and 
incited  them  to  attack  the  French. 

Champlain's  efforts  to  plant  an  agricultural  colony  were 
opposed  at  the  court  of  France  by  persons  whose  interests 
were  in  the  fur  trade.  At  Champlain's  death,  1635,  the 
colony  on  the  St.  Lawrence  contained  not  more  than  sixty 
persons,  sustained  chiefly  by  supplies  brought  from  France. 
During  this  period  began  the  Jesuit  missionary  activity, 
which  was  so  prominent  a  feature  of  French  colonization. 
With  the  greatest  devotion  and  with  untold  suffering,  these 
priests  pursued  their  unselfish  work. 

During  the  second  period  of  French  colonization,  from 
the  death  of  Champlain  to  the  accession  of  Colbert  as 
minister  to  Louis  XIV,  the  colony  increased  in  population 
to  2,500;  but  it  was  still  upon  a  weak  foundation.  A 
trading  company,  the  Hundred  Associates  (1626-1663), 
headed  by  Richelieu  held  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade,  and 
their  profits  were  divided  among  the  stockholders  instead  of 

*  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France,  389.  The  Hurons  were  of  Iroquois 
stock,  but  they  refused  to  join  the  confederacy  of  the  Five  Nations. 


The  French  in  America 


107 


going  toward  the  upbuilding  of  a  strong  colony  in  Canada. 
Here,  as  in  the  English  colonies,  it  was  proved  that  mere 
mercantile  interest  was  not  adequate  to  the  establishment  of 
a  self-supporting  colony.  The  Iroquois  utterly  destroyed  the 
Huron  villages  (1648)  and  broke  up  the  western  fur  trade. 
Colbert  applied  his  policy  of  industrial  administration 
in  France  to  the  colony  in  America.  Here  his  able  assistant 


Champlain's   Plan  of  the  Fort  of  the  Iroquois 

From  a  copy  of  the  First  Edition  of  the  Voyages  of  1619,  in  the  New  York  Public  Library 
( Lenox  Building) 

was  the  intendant  Talon.     The  colony  was  supplied  with 
more  soldiers ;  its  debt  and  the  expenses  of  its  maintenance 
were  assumed  by  the  King.     "The  new  settler  was  found   Third 
bv  the  King,  sent  over  by  the  King,  and  supplied  bv  the  period  of 

*    .  •  i        V  11    colomza- 

King  with  a  wife,  a  farm,  and  sometimes  with  a  house,      tion,  1663 

Large  tracts  of  land  were  granted  to  seigneurs  who  were  to   1 
establish  settlers  upon  them.     Thus,  the  actual  cultivators 


108 


American  History 


The  fur 
trade. 


Frontenac. 


Explora 
tion  by 
Nicolet, 
1634. 


Joliet  and 

Marquette, 

1673. 


of  the  soil  were  tenants,  and  were  restricted  in  various 
ways.  Their  farms  lay  in  ribbon-like  strips  running  back 
from  the  river  front. 

The  fur  trade  was  a  constant  influence  undermining  the 
strength  of  New  France  as  an  agricultural  colony.  The 
wild,  free  life  of  the  bushrangers  (coureurs  du  bois],  coupled 
with  the  chances  for  great  profit,  drew  young  men  into 
the  western  wilderness.  Here  the  interlacing  water-ways 
offered  a  perpetual  inducement  for  penetrating  the  forests 
to  their  farthest  extremities. 

Much  of  the  strength  gained  by  New  France  during  the 
third  period  of  its  history  (1663-1689)  must  be  attributed 
to  the  work  of  its  great  governor,  Count  Frontenac.  He 
extended  his  influence  in  two  directions:  (1)  along  the 
great  water-ways  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  (2)  among 
the  Iroquois  Indians. 

One  of  the  last  acts  of  Champlain's  administration  was  the 
commissioning  of  a  young  French  interpreter,  Jean  Nicolet,  to 
find  a  water-way  leading  to  the  Pacific.  Champlain  had  heard 
of  a  strange  people  who  dwelt  upon  a  western  shore  and  who 
had  come  from  across  "the  great  water."  Were  they  Chinese? 
Nicolet,  ascending  the  Ottawa  River  and  passing  through  Lakes 
Huron  and  Michigan,  entered  and  ascended  Green  Bay.  Here 
he  found  the  "strange  people,"  who  proved  to  be  Winnebago 
Indians,  a  branch  of  the  Sioux  family,  whose  home  was  west  of 
the  Mississippi. 

The  exploration  of  Nicolet  was  tardily  followed  up.  In 
1659-1660  and  subsequent  years,  two  traders,  Radisson 
and  Groseilliers,  penetrated  to  the  western  extremity  of 
Lake  Superior.  Passing  thence  southward  along  the  rivers 
of  Wisconsin,  they  doubtless  reached  and  crossed  the 
Mississippi  River. 

In  1673,  Talon  selected  Louis  Joliet  as  an  official  ex 
plorer  to  follow  the  Mississippi  and  determine  whether  it 
emptied  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  or  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Starting  from  Quebec,  Joliet  stopped  at  the  Jesuit  mission 
at  Mackinac,  where  he  was  joined  by  Father  Marquette. 
Theirs  was  a  wonderful  journey,  through  Green  Bay,  up 


X. 


G  V 


ROUTES  OF 
FRENCH  EXPLORERS 

Nicolet  1634 

tfarquette  and  Joliet  f673 
—La  Salle  leia-iesn 

l.L.PC«TES  CNGR'S  CO.,  N.Y, 


The  Routes  of  French  Explorers 


110 


American  History 


La  Salle. 


His 

western 

journeys. 


the  Fox  River,  and  down  the  lower  Wisconsin  and  the 
Mississippi,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  River. 
From  here  they  returned,  being  practically  certain  that 
the  river  would  not  carry  them  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

Greatest  in  the  long  list  of  French  explorers  was  La 
Salle.  Between  La  Salle  and 
Frontenac  there  was  "the 
sympathetic  attraction  of  two 
bold  and  energetic  spirits." 
They  wished  that  the  buffalo 
skins  and  heavy  peltries  of 
the  western  streams  might 
find  an  outlet  by  transporta 
tion  down  the  Mississippi 
River.  This,  too,  would  put 
within  French  control  a  water 
way,  which,  unlike  the  St. 
Lawrence,  was  not  frozen  for 
a  great  part  of  the  year. 

Fort  Frontenac  was  estab 
lished  on  Lake  Ontario  as  an 
advanced  post  from  which 
the  fur  trade  might  be  controlled.  Then,  in  1679,  La  Salle 
built  on  Niagara  River,  above  the  falls,  a  sailing  vessel, 
The  Griffon.  In  it  he  sailed  through  Lakes  Erie  and 
Huron,  and  entered  Lake  Michigan.  From  the  head  of 
Lake  Michigan  La  Salle  proceeded  by  way  of  the  St. 
Joseph  and  Kankakee  rivers  to  the  Illinois,  where  he 
established  a  post  called  Crevecceur.*  Later,  he  made 
several  journeys  between  Canada  and  the  Illinois  country. 
The  crowning  event  of  this  history  is  his  successful  descent 
of  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth  (1682),  where  he  took 
formal  possession  of  all  the  land  drained  by  its  tributaries 
under  the  name  Louisiana.  He  then  founded  Fort  St.  Louis, 
at  Starved  Rock,  on  the  Illinois  River,  as  a  means  of  main 
taining  French  ascendency  among  the  tribes  of  that  region. 
*  The  present  site  of  Peoria,  111. 


A  possible  portrait  of  Marquette 


The  French  in  America  111 

On  his  first  journey  to  Illinois,  La  Salle  was  accom 
panied  by  Tonty,  one  of  the  bravest  French  explorers. 

Father  Hennepin  also  accompanied  La  Salle  to  Crevecceur,  and    Hennepin 
thence  ascended  the  Mississippi  to  northern  Minnesota.     Here    an<* 
he  was  a  captive  among  the  Sioux  Indians,  and  met  the  fur  trader    Du  Lhut 
Du  Lhut,  by  whom  he  was  rescued.     La  Salle  desired  to  establish 
a  military  post  and  depot  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi;  for 
this  purpose  he  transported  colonists  directly  from  France  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.     But  the  ships  missed  the  mouth  of  the  Missis 
sippi,  and  the  colony  wasted  away  on  the  Texan  shore.     La  Salle 
was  murdered  while  attempting  to  reach  Canada  to  find  aid  for 
this  colony  (1687). 

Frontenac's  policy  toward  the  Iroquois  was  to  concili 
ate  and  intimidate  them  by  turns.  He  succeeded  but 
temporarily.  The  Iroquois  raided  the  entire  West  as  far 
as  the  Mississippi  and  southward  to  the  Ohio.  Nowhere 
was  a  French  trader  safe  from  their  attacks.  For  these 
offences  they  were  severely  punished  by  Frontenac's  suc 
cessor,  Denonville,  but  they  were  not  permanently  subdued 
until  the  time  of  Frontenac's  return  to  America  (1689-1698), 
during  the  period  of  the  first  French  and  Indian  war. 

THE  FRENCH  WARS   AND   FURTHER  COLONIZATION 

At  three  points  the  conflicting  interests  of  the  French  Causes  of 
and  the  English  in  America  brought  the  colonists  to  the  55meri5.in 
point  of  war.  (1)  The  fisheries  of  northern  Atlantic 
waters  were  invaded  by  the  enterprising  New  Englanders. 
(2)  The  limits  of  Acadia  on  the  west  were  disputed  by  the 
settlers  of  Maine.  (3)  Both  nations  claimed  jurisdiction 
over  the  Mississippi  Valley.  This  dispute,  like  that  over 
Acadia,  involved  more  than  a  theoretical  title  to  an  un 
inhabited  region.  Practically  it  involved  the  friendship 
or  enmity  of  powerful  Indian  tribes  and  the  profits  of  their 
trade.  No  peace  between  the  rival  colonists  could  be  ex 
pected  while  the  Iroquois,  under  English  influence,  terror 
ized  the  western  tribes,  and  diverted  the  furs  to  their  own 
country,  where  they  acted  as  middlemen  in  selling  the  furs 
to  the  English  at  Albany. 


112 


American  History 


Compari 
son  of  the 
combat 
ants. 


Four  wars  were  fought  in  the  struggle  for  American 
territory.  On  which  side  were  the  greater  military  ad- 
vantages?  The 
government  of  New 
France  was  highly 
centralized,  and 
hence  the  military  re 
sources  of  the  colony 
were  in  immediate 
and  effective  control 
from  Quebec.  The 
English  colonies,  on 
the  other  hand,  were 
disunited,  jealous, 
and  at  first  penurious ; 
they  were  slow,  too, 
in  rallying  in  suffi 
cient  force  to  meet 
their  enemies.  Again, 
the  French  had  the 
advantage  in  the 
support  of  larger 
numbers  of  Indian 
allies  than  the  Eng 
lish  could  command; 
but  these  fickle 
friends  readily  de 
serted  the  French 
when  the  latter  suf 
fered  defeat. 

In  the  end  the  final 
struggle  for  the  pos 
session  of  North 


•&# 


By  Treaty  of  Utrecht 


I      I  Spanish 


North  America  in  1689  and  1713 


America   was    to  be 
determined  largely 

by  the  "staying  qualities"  of  the  combatants.     In  this  re 
spect  the  English    were  greatly  superior;  for  they  were 


The  French  in  America 


113 


backed  by  the  greater  population  and  wealth  of  the  col 
onies,  and  by  the  superior  resources,  particularly  the 
naval  power,  of  the  mother  country. 

The  actual  outbreak  of  hostilities  awaited  the  course  of  events    European 
in  Europe.     The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV    causes. 
(1685),    and    the    consequent    persecution    of    the    Huguenots, 
aroused  the  anger  of  Englishmen.     The  dismissal  of  James  II 
from  the  English  throne  (1688),  and  the  subsequent  favor  shown 
to  him  by  Louis,  added  fuel  to  the  fires  of  passion  in  both  coun 
tries.     Finally,  the  invitation  to  William  of  Orange  to  ascend 
the  throne  of  England,  led  directly  to  the  War  of  the  Palatinate 
(1689-1697). 


The  struggle  in  America,  known  as  King  William's 
War.  divides  itself  into  three  phases.  (1)  There  was 
attack  and  counter  attack  in  the  Iroquois  region;  these 
Indians  devastated  La  Chine,  while  the  French  and  Indians 
destroyed  Schenectady.  (2)  The  severest  attacks  of  the 
French  fell  upon  the  outlying  settlements  of  Maine, 
Dover,  Pemaquid,  and  Salmon  Falls.  (3)  The  revenge 
for  these  attacks  was  planned  at  an  intercolonial  con 
gress  held  at  New  York  (1690).  Here  plans  were  made 
for  a  concerted  land-and-water  attack  upon  Quebec 
and  Montreal,  but  they  failed  through  mismanagement. 
The  treaty  of  peace  that  ended  the  war  in  Europe  (Treaty 
of  Ryswick,  1697),  left  the  combatants  with  the  same 
territorial  limits  in  America  as  before,  and  the  same 
causes  for  enmity. 

The  last  struggle  of  Louis  XIV  against  his  enemies  in 
Europe,  precipitated  by  his  attempt  to  unite  the  thrones  of 
France  and  Spain,  is  known  as  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession.  In  America  it  gave  occasion  for  Queen 
Anne's  War.  Again  the  French  and  Indians  fell  upon  the 
outlying  New  England  settlements;  Wells,  Saco,  Casco, 
Deerfield,  and  Haverhill  were  stricken.  In  revenge,  the 
New  Englanders  captured  Port  Royal,  Acadia,  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  this  important  station  was  retained 
by  the  English  and  named  Annapolis.  The  surrounding 


King 


Queen 
Anne's 
War,  1701 


114 


American  History 


The  ex 
tension  of 
French 
power  in 
the  West. 


country,  with  indefinite  limits,  became  Nova  Scotia.  The 
English  likewise  obtained  Newfoundland  and  the  French 
gave  up  their  claims  to  the  borders  of  Hudson's  Bay. 
The  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713),  whose  terms  as  they  affect 
America  have  just  been  stated,  was  the  beginning  of  the 
downfall  of  French  colonial  power  in  America.  (See 
map  p.  112.) 

In  the  years  immediately  preceding  and  following  Queen 
Anne's  War,  the  French  were  actively  pursuing  their  policy 
of  establishing  military  and  trading  posts  throughout  the 
West.  These  were  all  situated  at  strategic  points,  guard- 


The  French  and  Indian  Wars,  1689-1748 

ing  important  water-ways  and  routes  of  travel.  As  the 
posts  of  Mackinac  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  were  stations  on 
the  older  routes  of  the  northern  waters,  so  Detroit  was 
founded  (1701)  to  aid  in  controlling  the  more  direct  routes 
to  the  Mississippi.  Fort  Miami  on  the  Maumee  and  Fort 
St.  Joseph,  on  the  river  of  that  name,  had  been  located  on 
important  routes  of  travel.  In  the  Illinois  country  the 
posts  at  Cahokia  (1669)  and  Kaskaskia  (1700)  were  trad- 


The  French  in  America  115 

ing  centres,  and  near  them  Fort  Chartres  was  built  in  1720. 
At  about  the  same  time  the  French  built  a  fort  on  the  upper 
Wabash  River;  and  by  1727  they  had  another  stronghold 
at  Vincennes.  At  Mobile  (1701)  and  New  Orleans  (1718) 
French  power  was  upheld  on  the  Gulf.  Fort  Rosalie  was 
early  established  near  the  present  site  of  Natchez. 

Such  was  the  French  "chain  of  posts"  reaching  from 
Quebec  to  New  Orleans.  The  weakness  of  this  method  of 
occupation  lay  in  the  sparseness  of  population  found  within 
the  territory.  A  handful  of  soldiers  was  all  that  France  Theinhabi- 
could  spare  for  all  her  posts;  these  could  not  move  aggres- 
sively  against  the  English  frontier — the  Alleghany  Moun 
tains.  Besides  the  soldiers,  the  huts  that  were  crowded 
within  the  palisades  of  the  western  posts  sheltered  the 
coureurs  du  bois,  who  came  and  went  on  their  trading 
expeditions.  Here,  too,  in  most  cases  were  a  few  hardy 
peasants  (habitans)  who  dared  till  the  soil  within  easy 
reach  of  the  posts.  Watching  over  this  varied  collection 
of  French  subjects  were  the  priests,  everywhere  working 
to  bring  the  Indians  within  their  influence. 

Another  European  struggle  (the  War  of  the  Austrian  King 
Succession)    gave    occasion    for    the    outbreak    of    King  waML74 
George's  War  in  America  (1744-1748).     Soon  after  the   1748. 
preceding  war  the  French  had  begun  to  spend  money  lav 
ishly  in  making  an  impregnable  fortress  at  the  town  and 
harbor  of  Louisburg,   on   Cape  Breton  Island.     Louis- 
burg's  position  made  it  the  guardian  of  the  St.  Lawrence; 
here  French  fleets  could  rendezvous.     It  was  the  base  of 
supplies  from -which  the  English  fishing  fleets  were  men 
aced.     It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  New  Englanders 
should  organize  an  expedition  against  it.     Sheer  pluck  and 
bravery,  with  the  assistance  of  an  English  fleet,  won  a 
memorable  victory,  and  Louisburg  fell  (1745).     Great  was 
the  disappointment  and  anger  of  the  captors  when  this  im 
portant  post  was  returned  to  the  French.* 

*  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  confirmed  the  English  possession 
of  Bombay,  India;  and  this  accounts  for  the  surrender  of  Louisburg, 


FRENCH  POSTS  AND 
PORTAGES  IN  THE  WEST 


116 


'    French  Posts  and  Portages  in  the  West 


The  French  in  America  117 

The  final  struggle  in  America  could  not  be  long  The 
postponed;  the  outcome  depended  partly  upon  the 
character  of  the  French  colony  in  America.  In  1750,  France, 
the  white  population  of  New  France  (including  Acadia, 
Canada,  and  Louisiana)  was  about  80,000;  in  marked 
contrast,  the  English  colonies  contained  at  that  date 
more  than  a  million  people.  The  causes  for  this  dif 
ference  are  found  partly  in  the  motives  that  prompted 
colonization  in  the  two  mother  countries.  Political  and 
religious  persecution  had  worked  powerfully  to  depop 
ulate  France;  but  the  exiled  Huguenots  were,  after 
1685,  absolutely  forbidden  to  settle  within  the  limits  of 
New  France.  Consequently,  those  who  crossed  the  At 
lantic  added  their  strength  to  the  English  colonies. 
(See  p.  76.)  Moreover,  the  French  lacked  the  colon 
izing  spirit  that  characterized  the  English — that  desire 
for  economic  improvement  through  the  toilsome  process 
of  building  homes  in  a  new  land.  The  spirit  of  ad 
venture,  the  missionary  spirit,  and  the  desire  for  gain 
by  trade  were  the  motives  of  the  colonists  who  came  to 
New  France  voluntarily;  still  others  were  sent,  either  as 
soldiers  or  as  settlers.  The  natural  increase  of  population 
in  Canada  was  slow. 

The   leading   industry   of    New    France   was    the    fur  Their  in- 
trade.     Geographical   conditions    account    for   this   fact,   dustries- 
and  the  effect  of    this    industry    was    to  strengthen  the 
wandering  and    adventurous    tendencies   of   the   people. 
The   agricultural    system    prevailing    in    the   colony  did 
nothing    to    foster    a    self-reliant    and    progressive    class 
of   farmers.      Here,    as    in   the    paternalistic    policy    al 
ready    outlined    (p.    107),    the    people    were    trained    in 
dependence,  rather  than  in  self-reliance. 

This  fact  is  still  more  plainly  seen  in  the  governmental   Their  gov- 
system  of   the  colony.     The  Governor-General   and  the  e 
Intendant  were   the    chief   executive    officers,   and   these 
were    appointed    by    the    crown    of    France.      Instead 
of   having   distinct   functions,    these   officers    continually 


118 


American  History 


No  repre 
sentative 
govern 
ment. 


clashed.*  These  secular  officers  were  also  in  frequent 
conflict  with  the  church  officials,  who  likewise  received 
appointment  in  France.  The  existence  of  the  fur-trade 
monopoly  was  another  disturbing  element  in  the  situation. 
For  the  violation  of  the  law  granting  the  monopoly  often 
yielded  rich  rewards,  which  sorely  tempted  both  settlers 
and  officers. 

There  existed  no  elected  legislative  body  in  either  the 
central  or  the  local  government  of  New  France.  An  effort 
of  Frontenac  to  set  up  an  elected  council  at  Quebec  met  a 
rebuke  from  Colbert,  who  ordered  its  discontinuance,  say 
ing,  "You  should  very  rarely,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly, 
never,  give  a  corporate  form  to  the  inhabitants  of  Canada." 
Instead,  therefore,  of  having  a  voice  in  their  local  affairs, 
the  people  obeyed  the  commands  of  their  rulers,  and  these 
in  turn  were  subject  to  constant  and  minute  direction  by  the 
King  and  his  ministers  at  Paris. 


The  influ 
ence  of 
physical 
geography. 


WESTWARD    MIGRATION    AND    THE     FRENCH    AND    INDIAN 

WAR 

The  movement  of  the  English  colonists  westward  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  was  influenced  most  profoundly  by 
physical  geography.  It  has  already  been  noted  that  the 
physical  characteristics  of  Ne\v  England  promoted  coast 
line  settlement  mainly.  The  geography  of  the  South,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  favorable  to  an  industry  that  caused 
the  expansion  of  settlers  over  a  larger  area.  Here,  how 
ever,  the  coastal  plain  was  much  wider. 

The  first  advance  of  settlement  in  any  section  was  to  the  fall 
line.  This  name  has  been  given  to  a  line  connecting  the  points 
on  rivers  where  rapids  indicate  the  limits  of  the  coastal  plain 
proper.  As  far  inland  as  these  points  extends  the  "tide-water" 
region,  where  tidal  influence  can  be  felt.  Beyond  the  fall  line 

*  In  fact,  it  was  the  deliberate  policy  of  the  home  government  to  avoid 
separating  the  jurisdictions  of  the  Governor  and  the  Intendant,  to  the  end 
that  they  might  spy  upon  each  other.  Am.  Hist.  Review,  XII,  25-26. 


The  French  in  America 


119 


ocean  vessels  could  not  go;  water  power  was  often  developed  at 
these  points.  These  considerations  determined  the  location  of 
cities:  on  the  fall  line  are  situated  Philadelphia,  Washington, 
Fredericksburg,  Richmond,  Petersburg,  Raleigh,  Camden,  and 
Columbia. 

By  1700  population  had  advanced  somewhat  beyond  the  Population 

f  n    v         i          ^        in  the 
fall  line,  but  the   English 

region  westward  Colonies, 
to  the  mountains 
was  unexplored. 
It  was  a  remark- 
able  feat  per 
formed  by  Gov 
ernor  Spotswood 
of  Virginia  when, 
in  1716,  he  led  a 
body  of  horse 
men  as  far  west 
as  the  Blue  Ridge, 
where  they 
viewed  the  beau 
tiful  "Valley  of 
Virginia" — the 
Shenandoah  Val 
ley.  Spotswood 
was  one  of  the  few 
who  saw  the  stra 
tegic  importance 
of  possessing  this  region  and  holding  the  mountain  passes 
against  the  advance  of  the  French. 

Fur  traders  were  the  first  to  penetrate  the  wild  mountain  The  first 
regions  of  the  Alleghanies.  These  returned  with  accounts 
of  fertile  valleys  and  wide  plains  beyond.  In  New  York 
westward  advance  was  checked  by  the  Catskill  Mountains, 
and  in  the  Mohawk  Valley  the  Iroquois  Indians  were  long  a 
barrier  in  the  way.  In  the  extreme  South,  the  people  of  both 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina  were  deterred  from  settle- 


Governor  Spotswood 


120 


American  History 


The  move 
ment  in 
the 
valleys. 


The  Ohio 
Company. 


ment  in  the  West  by  the  hostility  of  the  Indians  on  their 
borders.  Hence  it  was  that  the  mountain  valleys  were 
first  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  where  the  Scotch-Irish  and 
the  Germans  *  found  ready  access  to  them  by  way  of  the 
Susquehanna  River  and  its  tributaries. 

The  movement  of  these  mountain  settlers  was  not,  how 
ever,  due  westward.  Better  lands  were  to  be  found  farther 
south,  and  in  this  direction  the  river  valleys  opened  the 
line  of  least  resistance.  From  Pennsylvania,  then,  the 
first  settlers  came  into  the  Shenandoah  Valley  (about 
1732).  Others  pushed  farther  on,  finding  the  head-waters 
of  the  New  and  Greenbriar  rivers  that  feed  the  Great 
Kanawha,  a  tributary  of  the  Ohio;  and  the  head-waters 
of  the  Holston,  Clinch,  and  French  Broad  rivers  that 
feed  the  Tennessee.  These  mountain  frontiersmen  were 
reenforced  by  settlers  from  Virginia,  many  of  whom  were 
ex-indentured  servants,  and  from  North  Carolina. f 

In  1748,  a  body  of  prominent  Virginians  organized  the 
Ohio  Company  and  the  next  year  obtained  a  grant  of  land 
west  of  the  mountains  in  Virginia.  Their  purpose  was  to 
engage  in  the  fur  trade  and  to  colonize  the  lands.  Their 
post  at  Will's  Creek  (later  Cumberland,  Md.),  was  on  the 
mountain  trail  that  ran  westward  to  a  tributary  of  the 
Monongahela  River.  The  activity  of  English  traders  in 
the  Ohio  country  and  this  project  of  the  Ohio  Company 
for  settlement  were  answered  by  the  French  when  they'sent 
an  expedition  under  Celeron,  which  followed  the  Alleghany 


*  For  discussion  of  Scotch-Irish  and  Germans,  see  pp.  76,  129. 

t  "These  pioneers  were  of  different  type  from  the  planters  of  the  South, 
or  the  merchants  and  seamen  of  the  New  England  coast.  The  Scotch- 
Irish  element  was  ascendant,  and  this  contentious,  self-reliant,  hardy, 
backwoods  stock,  with  its  rude  and  vigorous  forest  life,  gave  the  tone  to 
Western  thought  in  the  Revolutionary  era.  A  log  hut,  a  little  clearing, 
edged  by  the  primeval  forest,  with  the  palisaded  fort  near  by— this  was 
the  type  of  home  they  made.  As  they  pushed  the  frontier  on,  they  held 
their  lands  at  the  price  of  their  blood  shed  in  incessant  struggles  with  the 
Indians."  Turner,  Western  State-Making  in  the  Revolutionary  Era. 
Am.  Hist.  Review,  I,  72-73. 


The  French  in  America 


121 


and  Ohio  rivers  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Miami. 
Leaden  plates  were  buried  at  various  points  inscribed  with 
the  claim  of  France  to  the  entire  region.  This  presaged 
the  final  struggle  between  the  French  and  the  English  in 
America. 

The  most  vital  point  of  contact  between  the  rival  col-  French 
onizing  powers  was  the  upper  Ohio  Valley.     The  next  J 

move  of  the  French  ghany. 
was  the  establish 
ment  of  a  series  of 
posts — Presque  Isle 
on  Lake  Erie  and 
Forts  Le  Bceuf  and 
Venango  on  the  Al- 
leghany  River.  In 
response  to  this  ac 
tion,  Governor  Din- 
wriddie,  of  Virginia, 
sent  George  Wash 
ington,  whose  experi 
ence  as  a  surveyor  on 
the  frontier  qualified 
him  for  the  enter 
prise,  to  warn  the 
French  that  they  had 
encroached  upon 
English  territory. 

The  warning  proved  futile  and  the  French  proceeded  to 
erect  Fort  Du  Quesne,  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and 
the  Monongahela  rivers — the  most  important  point  on  the 
western  frontier.  When,  the  next  year,  Washington  was  sent 
with  a  small  force  to  drive  the  French  from  this  post,  he 
was  defeated;  being  forced  to  surrender  at  Fort  Necessity 
(July  4,  1754),  he  withdrew  to  Virginia. 

The  situation  was  now  critical,  and  though  France  and  The 
England  were  nominally  at  peace  in  Europe,  each  made  congress, 
active  preparations  for  guarding  its  possessions  in  America.   1754> 


Western  Forts — French  and  Indian  Wai 


122  American  History 

In  1754  the  New  England  colonies,  New  York,  Pennsyl 
vania,  and  Maryland  sent  delegates  to  a  congress  at  Al 
bany.  This  congress  renewed  the  alliance  with  the  Iro- 
quois,  and  then  discussed  plans  for  a  union  of  the  colonies 
that  would  render  their  military  forces  more  efficient.  The 
plan  adopted  was  drawn  up  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  It 
provided  for  a  President-General,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
crown,  and  a  Grand  Council  to  be  composed  of  delegates 
elected  by  the  colonial  assemblies.  In  the  latter  feature 
the  English  Government  saw  too  much  of  colonial  self- 
government  and  so  rejected  the*  plan.  The  colonial 
assemblies,  on  the  other  hand,  objected  to  the  presence 
of  a  royal  officer,  and  none  of  them  approved  the  measure. 
The  last  The  situation  in  America  when  the  French  and  Indian 

Indian  W  War  began  in  earnest  reveals  four  principal  points  of  attack 
1760  1?55~  anc*  Defence.  CO  Fort  Du  Quesne  was  essential  to  the  power 
that  would  hold  the  West.  (2)  Fort  Niagara  guarded  the 
French  communications  with  Du  Quesne,  with  the  Iro- 
quois  Indians,  and  with  Detroit  and  Mackinac.  (3)  The 
Lake  Champlain  route  was  the  most  direct  line  of  com 
munication  between  New  York  and  Canada.  (4)  Louis- 
burg  was  essential  in  the  naval  defence  of  Quebec;  and  it 
menaced  English  interests  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Years  of  During  the  years  1755-1757  the  French  were,  in  general, 

defeat  for  <•   i       i  •    «      i  e    ,1  > 

the  successtul,   chiefly   because  01  the  incompetency    ot    the 

English.  English  officers.  Braddock's  expedition  against  Fort  Du 
Quesne  (1755)  resulted  in  a  terrible  defeat;  but  it  served  to 
arouse  the  colonists  to  more  prompt  action.  For  three 
years,  while  the  French  held  Du  Quesne,  the  frontiers  of 
neighboring  colonies  were  harassed  by  Indian  attacks. 
Unfortunately,  the  authorities  and  people  of  the  tide-water 
regions  refused  to  send  adequate  means  of  defence  to  the 
frontier. 

In  1756,  English  attempts  against  Niagara  and  Louis- 
burg  failed,  and  Oswego  fell  into  French  hands.  In  the 
Lake  Champlain  region  a  French  force  under  Montcalm 
pushed  their  line  forward  and  built  Fort  Ticonderoga. 


The  French  in  America 


123 


From  here  they  successfully  attacked  the  English  Fort 
William  Henry.     (See  map,  p.  114.) 

But  a  new  day  dawned  for  the  cause  of  England  when   wmiam 
William  Pitt  assumed    control  of  the  government.     The 
personality  of  this  great  man — his  faith  in  himself,  in  the 
people,   and   in   the  destiny   of  England — aroused   great 
enthusiasm  in  both  England  and  America.     The  Seven 


Pitt  and 
his  policy. 


William  Pitt 

From  the  National  Portrait  Gallery 


Years'  WTar  had  begun  in  Europe  (1756).  Pitt  sent  aid 
to  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  in  his  single-handed 
struggle  against  France,  Austria,  and  Russia.  He  put  men 
and  money  into  the  war  in  America  and  sent  over  com 
petent  commanders.  Generals  Wolfe  and  Amherst  took 
Louisburg  (1758),  and  so  made  possible  the  naval  attack 
upon  Quebec.  Fort  Frontenac  was  captured.  A  well- 


124 


American  History 


The  siege 
and  capt 
ure  of 
Quebec, 
1759. 


organized  expedition  under  General  Forbes  crossed  the 
Alleghanies  from  Philadelphia  and  secured  Fort  Du 
Quesne.  The  other  French  posts  in  that  neighborhood 
were  then  abandoned,  and  in  1759  Fort  Niagara  capitu 
lated.  Thus  the  French  posts  of  the  far  West  were  cut  off 
from  communication  with  Canada. 

The  war  now  concentrated  upon  Quebec,  whose  defences 
were  commanded  by  Montcalm.  While  a  naval  force 
under  Saunders,  cooperating  with  the  troops  under  Wolfe, 
held  close  siege  during  the  summer  months  of  1759,  a 


View  of  Quebec  from  Point  Levi 

tardy  expedition,  under  Amherst  moved  northward  from 
Lake  Champlain,  but  failed  to  render  assistance.  The 
strategic  problem,  which  almost  baffled  the  energy  and  skill 
of  Wolfe,  was  at  last  solved  in  a  most  dramatic,  and  to  the 
French  unexpected,  attack  upon  the  rear  of  Quebec.  Here, 
by  the  battle  upon  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  the  outcome  of 
the  war  was  virtually  decided.  With  the  fall  of  Montreal 
in  the  next  year,  the  conquest  of  Canada  was  complete. 
The  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  were  dictated 
largely  upon  the  basis  of  European  politics.  (1)  England 


The  French  in  America 


125 


returned  to  France  some  of  her  West  Indian  islands  which  The  Treaty 
had  been  captured.     (2)  All  the  former  French  possessions  Jy^"8' 
on  the  continent  east  of  the  Mississippi  were  ceded  to  Eng 
land.    (3)  France  ceded  her  claims  west  of  the  Mississippi  * 
to  Spain.     (4)  England  had  been  at  war  with  Spain  also, 

and  had  captured 
Manila  and  Havana. 
These  were  restored, 
and,  in  exchange, 
England  received 
Florida. 

The  consequences  Results  of 
of  this  war  were  mo- 
mentous.  On  its 
American  side,  it  de 
termined  the  possi 
bility  of  westward 
expansion  for  the 
English  people,  with 
the  ideas  and  insti 
tutions  that  are  fun- 

damental    in  the 

United  States  of  to 
day.  In  its  immediate  effects  the  war  gave  military  train 
ing  to  the  colonists;  it  gave  them  self-confidence;  and  of 
the  British  troops  and  officers  they  acquired  accurate  ideas 
that  were  to  be  of  service  in  years  not  distant.  The  col 
onists  also  had  some  experience  in  cooperative  efforts 
against  a  common  enemy.  Finally,  it  was  not  unobserved 
at  the  time  that  the  banishment  of  the  French  power  from 
America  removed  the  necessity  for  colonial  dependence 
upon  the  British  Government,  a  necessity  which  had 
hitherto  been  distinctly  felt. 

*  The  island  of  Orleans,  including  the  city,  went  with  the  western  part 
to  Spain.  Thus  France  lost  every  foot  of  her  colonial  empire  on  the 
continent;  but  she  retained  fishing  rights  in  Newfoundland  waters  and 
two  small  islands  (St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon),  south  of  Newfoundland. 


European 
by  Treaty  of  Parii 

£3  Englinh  ° 

French 
CD  Spanish 


European  Possessions  by  Treaty  of  Paris 


126  American  History 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Parkman's  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World.     Cham- 
plain's  early  life  and  voyages,  236-242.     Settlements  in  Acadia, 
243-275.     Founding  of  Quebec,  324-338.     Expedition  of  1609 
against  Iroquois,  339-352.     Second  expedition  against  Iroquois, 
399-416  (map).     Champlain's  character  and  work,  446-454. 

2.  Do  you  agree  with  Drake  (The  Making  of  the  Great  West, 
p.   72)    that   Champlain's   Iroquois   policy   was   "consummate 
folly"? 

3.  Fiske,  New  France  and  New  England.     Champlain's  policy, 
58-71.     Summary  of  his  work,  89-93.     La  Salle,  109-132.     Fur 
traders  and  missionaries,  98-109. 

4.  The  later  French  explorers.     Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  246- 
249.     Drake,  Making  of  the  Great  West,  75-85.     Fiske,  Dis 
covery  of  America,  II,  528-540. 

5.  Parkman,  Old  Regime  in  Canada.     Colbert  and  his  system, 
232-237.    Talon's  influence,  268-275. 

6.  Parkman,  Frontenac.    His  character  and  policy,   17-18; 
22-24;  389-396. 

7.  Nicolet.    Parkman's  La  Salle,  chaps.  23,  24.    Thwaites, 
Story  of  Wisconsin,  19-35. 

8.  Marquette  and  Joliet.     Parkman's  La  Salle,  48-78.     Drake, 
Making  of  the  Great  West,  85-92.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  I, 
No.    42.     Thwaites,    Father   Marquette — an    interesting    biog 
raphy. 

9.  Parkman,  The  Jesuits  (from  a  Protestant  point  of  view), 
chaps.  3,  4,  16,  20.    The  success  of  the  Jesuits,  317-320;  446- 
449.    Parkman's  La  Salle,  28-38;  92-94. 

10.  Conditions  and  events  preceding  the  French  and  Indian 
wars.    Fiske,  New  France  and  New  England,  258-283.     Also, 
French  colonial  policy,  100-109. 

11.  Parkman,  Old  Regime.     Canadian  feudalism,   304-315. 
Colonial  government,  326-329;  337-344;  348-351.     Trade  re 
strictions,  352-361;  366-379.     Life  in  the  colony,  434-460. 

12.  Royal  measures  fostering  New  France,  Hart,  Contempo 
raries,  I,  No.  41.    The  fur  trade,  320-324;  327-330. 

13.  Make  a  comparison  of  the  French  and  the  English  colonies 
under  the  following  heads: — 1.  Situation  of  each,  with  reasons. 
2.  The     people,     numbers,     moii/es,     classes.     3.  Industries. 
4.  Government.    5.  Relations  with  the  mother  country.     6.  Re- 


The  French  in  America  127 

lations  with  Indians.  7.  Military  strength.  Read  on  this  topic, 
Parkman's  works,  Old  Regime,  461-468.  Frontenac,  414-417. 
Half  Century  of  Conflict,  II,  63-77.  Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  I, 
20-35.  Also,  Sloane,  French  War  and  Revolution,  22-27;  33-37. 
Greene,  Provincial  America,  114-118. 

14.  Parkman,  Half  Century  of  Conflict,  I.  The  attack  on  New 
England  towns,  chaps.  3,  4.     French  policy,  262-267;  288-290. 

15.  The    capture    of    Louisburg.     Harper's    Magazine,    108: 
209-218  (map).     Parkman,  Half  Century  of  Conflict,  II,  chaps. 
18,  19,  20  (maps,  frontispiece,  and  p.   113).     Hart,  Contempo 
raries,  II,  No.  120.     Fiske,  New  France  and  New  England,  249- 
257  (map). 

16.  Are  the  French  to-day  a  successful  colonizing  nation? 

17.  Braddock's  defeat.     Sloane,  French  War  and  Revolution, 
40-45.     Parkman,    Montcalm   and   Wolfe,    I,    chap.    7.     Hart, 
Contemporaries,   II,   No.  127.     Bancroft,   II,   420-425.     Fiske, 
New  France  and  New  England,  283-293. 

18.  The  Albany  Congress  and  Franklin's  plan.     Hart,  Con 
temporaries,   II,   No.  125.     Bancroft,   I,   385-388.     James  and 
Sanford,   Government  in  State  and  Nation,   114.     Old  South 
Leaflets,  No.  9. 

19.  William  Pitt,  the  Great  Commoner.     Green,  History  of 
England,  748-753.     Gardiner,  746-753. 

20.  The  capture  of  Quebec.     Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe, 
chaps.  25,  27,  28.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  No.  129.      Ban 
croft,  II,  503-512.     Fiske,  New  France  and  New  England,  344- 
359  (map).     Kendall,  Source  Book  of  English  History,  345-349. 
Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  History,  247-250. 

21.  The  Treaty  of  Paris,  Sloane,  French  \Var  and  Revolu 
tion,  chap.  9. 

22.  The  people  and  government  of  New  France.     Thwaites, 
France  in  America,  chap.  8.     The  frontiersmen  of  the  English 
colonies,  ibid,  145-148. 

23.  Historical  fiction.      Catherwood,  The  Romance  of  Dol- 
lard.    The  Story  of  Tonty.    Doyle,  The  Refugees.     Thackeray, 
The  Virginians.     Parker,  The  Seats  of    the  Mighty   (Fall  of 
Quebec). 

24.  Source  material,  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  Ameri 
can  history,  chap.  8. 


CHAPTER  IX 


Growth  in 
population. 


The 

German 
immi 
grants. 


THE  ENGLISH  COLONIES  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY 

BETWEEN  the  years  1690  and  1760  the  English  colonies 
grew  in  population  from  about  245,000  to  1,600,000. 
Here,  as  in  all  new  countries,  where  conditions  of  life  are 
easy,  the  natural  increase  was  large;  and  there  was  much 
immigration.  In  New  England,  non-English  immigrants 
were  not  welcomed,  though  there  were  some  Huguenots  in 
the  cities  and  Scotch-Irish  in  New  Hampshire.  Families 
were  large,  and  there  was  little  migration  out  of  New 
England.  In  the  middle  colonies,  this  period  saw  a  great 
influx  of  non-English  immigrants. 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  Huguenots  and  the 
Germans  left  Europe  have  been  mentioned  (pp.  82,  117). 
Added  to  these  European  conditions  were  the  inducements 
presented  by  the  New  World :  free  land,  free  thought,  and 
the  certainty  of  better  economic  conditions  for  both  the 
immigrant  and  his  children.  These  attractions  were  ad 
vertised  by  Pennsylvania  and  by  the  agents  of  land  com 
panies.  The  English  Government  sent  to  America  sev 
eral  thousand  Germans  who  had  fled  to  that  country. 
The  immigrants  in  America  also  advertised  the  attractions 
of  this  country  most  effectively  in  correspondence  with 
their  friends  and  relatives  at  home.  While  some  of  the 
Germans  settled  in  New  York  and  the  Carolinas,  the  great 
est  number  went  to  Pennsylvania,  where  they  found  more 
liberal  conditions.  Here  they  made  homes  on  the  frontier, 
and  became  a  substantial  and  very  conservative  element 
of  the  population. 

128 


English  Colonies  in  the  Eighteenth  Century     129 

The  Scotch- Irish  immigrants  constituted  another  im-  The 
portant  element  in  the  colonies.  The  settlement  of  north- 
eastern  Ireland  by  Scotch  and  English  peasants  in  the  reigns 
of  Elizabeth  and  James  *  accounts  for  this  alien  Protestant 
element  in  that  country.  They  were  mainly  Presbyterians, 
and  oppressive  laws  aimed  at  Catholics  often  bore  hard 
upon  them  also.  There  was  economic  oppression  be-  . 
sides — restraints  put  upon  their  industries  and  exorbitant 
rents  exacted  by  landlords.  Scotch-Irish  immigration  be 
gan  early  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  continued  during 
the  entire  period  now  under  re  view,  f  Pennsylvania,  Vir 
ginia,  and  the  Carolinas  were  the  favorite  destinations  of 
these  immigrants.  They  pushed  to  the  western  frontier, 
among  the  foot-hills  of  the  Alleghanies  and  into  the  valleys 
that  lie  between  the  parallel  mountain  ranges.  Often 
they  moved  northward  or  southward  in  these  valleys,  and 
they  were  among  the  first  to  cross  the  mountains  into  the 
fertile  lands  that  lay  invitingly  beyond. 

The  Germans  and  the  Scotch-Irish  constituted  the  largest 
non-English  element  in  the  colonies.  Smaller  numbers  of 
Swiss,  Welsh,  Highland  Scotch,  and  Irish  came  to  various 
colonies. 

Great  numbers  of  these  immigrants  came  as  servants  un-  The 
der  indenture  contracts  (see  pp.  43-44) ;  some  were  convicts  JJJ'jJf J^s 
and  some  were  given  free  land  by  the  English  Government,  in  America. 
In  the  colonies  where  they  settled,  though  sometimes  re 
stricted  from  full  political  privileges,  the  non-English  im 
migrants  finally  acquired  naturalization.     Thus  the  ming 
ling  of  peoples  of  different  stocks,  which  is  one  of  the  funda 
mental  facts  in  American  history,  became  marked  in  tjie 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Industrially,  this  period  was  one  of  substantial  growth. 
The  beginnings  of  colonial  industries  have  been  traced 
(pp.  91-98).  The  agriculture  of  the  Southern  colonies 

*  See  Gardiner's  History  of  England,  452,  475,  484. 
t  One  authority  estimates  the  number  at  12,000  yearly  between  1729 
and  1750. 


130 


American  History 


Industrial 
growth  and 
changes 
in  the 
South. 


Growth  of 

varied 

iadustries. 


Commer 
cial  ex 
pansion. 


became  more  systematic;  larger  crops  were  raised  and 
more  produce  was  exported.  In  the  Carolinas  rice  was  the 
principal  product,  and  toward  1750  indigo  became  im 
portant.  These  were  exported,  together  with  naval  stores 
and  lumber.  Tn  Virginia  and  South  Carolina  the  tendency 
toward  the  growth  of  large  estates  continued,  while  in 

North  Carolina  small 
farms  were  the  rule. 
Virginia  and  Mary 
land  continued  to  be 
the  great  tobacco- 
producing  colonies. 
The  non-English 
settlers  on  the  bor 
ders  of  all  the  South 
ern  colonies  lived  on 
small  farms,  which 
they  worked  them 
selves,  and  raised 
chiefly  grains,  cattle, 
and  horses. 

In  the  middle  col 
onies  industries  be 
came  more  varied.  Here  and  in  New  England  manufactur 
ing  grew  to  greater  importance.  Coarse  woollens,  chiefly 
worn  by  the  colonists,  were  made  in  the  homes;  much  linen 
was  manufactured.  Iron  began  to  be  an  important  article 
of  manufacture  in  the  middle  colonies.  Pottery,  glassware, 
hats,  rope,  furniture,  and  shoes  were  made  in  crude  forms 
and  on  a  small  scale.  The  finer  materials  and  articles 
were  still  imported  from  Europe. 

In  New  England  fishing  and  ship-building  grew  to  great 
importance  during  the  eighteenth  century,  and  these  in 
dustries  in  turn  stimulated  commerce.  When  a  period  of 
peace  (1713-1744)  ensued  after  the  series  of  wars  between 
England  and  France,  the  seas  became  safer  and  English 
capital  was  invested  in  colonial  bottoms.  At  this  time  the 


A  Colonial  Fire  Engine 


English  Colonies  in  the  Eighteenth  Century     131 

fast-sailing  schooner  was  brought  to  perfection.  A  race 
of  sturdy  and  skilful  seamen  was  bred  in  the  cod  and 
mackerel  fisheries  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  while  the  venture 
some  quest  for  whales  carried  New  Englanders  from  Arctic 
to  Antarctic  waters. 

The  forests  of  New  England,  New  York,  and  Pennsyl-  Exports 
vania  yielded  timber  for  ships,  which  became  an  important 
article  of  export.  From  the  middle  colonies  were  shipped 
grains,  meats,  furs,  and  lumber;  from  New  England,  fish, 
horses,  meats,  clapboards,  and  staves.  For  the  greater 
amount  of  these  products  England  offered  but  a  small 
market,  since  her  industries  yielded  similar  products. 
The  countries  of  southern  Europe  and  the  West  Indies 
were  the  chief  markets  for  the  exports  mentioned.  From 
Spain  and  France  in  return  came  wines,  oil,  silk  goods,  and 
products  of  the  East — sugar,  coffee,  and  drugs.  Molasses 
and  sugar  were  imported  from  the  West  Indies.  From 
this  molasses  rum  was  manufactured  in  large  quantities 
in  New  England. 

Besides  being  a  common  beverage  and  a  staple  article  in  the  The  slave 
Indian  trade,  rum  was  exported.  Traders  who  included  it  as  a  trade, 
part  of  their  cargoes  generally  touched  at  an  English  or  a  West 
Indian  port  on  their  way  to  Africa.  There  cloth  and  trinkets, 
together  with  the  rum,  sufficed  to  secure  a  cargo  of  slaves.  Then 
began  the  horrible  "middle  passage"  back  to  America  in  which 
often  a  large  proportion  of  the  wretched  negroes  died.  Many 
were  disposed  of  in  West  Indian  ports,  whence  more  sugar  and 
molasses  were  taken.  During  colonial  times  no  protest  seems 
to  have  arisen  against  the  inhumanity  and  wickedness  of  this 
traffic. 

Manufactures  were  purchased  in  large  quantities  from  Thebai- 
England,  thus  throwing  the  balance  of  trade  against  the 
colonists.  Since  the  balance  with  the  West  Indies  was  in 
their  favor,  much  French  and  Spanish  coin,  of  gold  and 
silver,  came  thence  in  payment.  This  was  in  turn  mainly 
shipped  to  England  in  settlement  of  the  balance  due  there. 

Little  hard  money  remained  in  the  colonies,  and  there  were  no    Paper 
precious  metals  produced  from  which  to  coin  it.     Hence  arose    money. 


132 


American  History 


Privateer 
ing. 


The  broad 
ening  of 
life. 


a  demand  for  paper  money,  a  demand  to  which  all  the  colonial 
governments  yielded,  with  unfortunate  consequences.  Its 
fluctuating  value  resulted  in  loss  to  many  and  benefited  only 
speculators.  Colonial  governors  were  instructed  by  the  home 
government  to  p r o - 
hibit  such  issues. 

During  the  Euro 
pean  wars  of  these 
times  privateering  was 
allowed,  and  upon  the 
cessation  of  a  war  the 
privateer  often  turned 
pirate.  The  laxity  of 
moral  ideas  upon  this 
subject  allowed  the  pi 
rates  to  conduct,  more 
or  less  openly,  a  profit 
able  trade  in  their 
stolen  goods.  The  in 
lets  of  the  Carolina 
coasts  and  of  the  West 
Indies  furnished  con 
venient  shelters.  Vig 
orous  efforts,  however, 
were  made  to  suppress 
piracy. 


Three-shilling  Massachusetts  Bill  of  1741 


Besides  being  a 
source  of  great  profit 
to  the  colonists,  their 
foreign  commerce  brought  them  into  touch  with  the  peo 
ples  of  other  lands.  This,  and  the  mingling  of  the  Eng 
lish  with  the  foreign  elements  of  colonial  population, 
broadened  their  vision  and  compelled  the  enlargement  of 
their  ideas.  Partly  for  this  reason,  the  strictness  and  sever 
ity  of  life  were  somewhat  relaxed  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
There  was  a  greater  degree  of  comfort  among  the  common 
people  and  of  luxury  among  the  rich.  As  the  struggle 
for  existence  became  easier  there  was  more  time  for 
refinement,  as  well  as  for  indulgence.  In  religious  mat 
ters,  especially  in  New  England,  the  church  ceased  to 
prescribe  minute  rules  of  conduct  and  the  ministry  lost  its 


English  Colonies  in  the  Eighteenth  Century     133 

preeminent  influence.     The  professions  of  law  and  med 
icine  became  more  respectable  and  had  greater  influence. 

A  revival  of  religion,  known  as  the  "great  awakening,"  Religion 
that  had  a  profound  influence,  began  in  New  England,  education 
in  1734,  and  lasted  ten  years.  In  this  movement,  which 
affected  all  the  colonies,  Jonathan  Edwards  and  George 
Whitefield  were  the  leaders.  In  educational  matters,  while 
the  spread  of  common  schools  was  slow,  a  number  of  col 
leges  were  founded:  Yale,  1701;  Princeton,  1746;  King's 
(now  Columbia  University),  1754;  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1755;  and  Brown,  1764.  Newspapers  were 
permanently  established,  the  Boston  News  Letter  (1704) 
being  the  first. 

In  the  constitution  of  their  governments  the  colonies  colonial 
may  be  classified  into  three  groups :  royal,  proprietary,  and 
republican.  This  classification  is  based  upon  the  three 
different  methods  by  which  their  governors  obtained  office; 
i.  e.,  by  royal  commission,  by  appointment  of  the  pro 
prietor,  and  by  popular  election.  In  the  first  group  there 
were,  in  1690,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  New  Yqrk, 
Maryland  (temporarily),  and  Virginia;  in  the  second,  Penn 
sylvania,  Delaware,  New  Jersey,  and  the  Carolinas.  Of  the 
latter  group  only  the  first  two  remained  proprietary,  the  rest 
becoming  royal,  while  Maryland  was  restored  to  the  Balti 
more  family.  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  alone  re 
tained  their  elective  governors,  and  so  may  be  classed  as 
republican.  With  them,  the  colonial  charters  were  the 
basis  for  the  governor's  authority;  in  the  proprietary  col 
onies,  the  royal  charter  specified  the  powers  of  the  governor; 
while  in  the  royal  colonies  the  commission  of  the  governor 
and  the  instructions  issued  by  the  home  government  from 
time  to  time  outlined  his  powers. 

In  the  royal  and  proprietary  colonies  the  governor  was   Governor 
assisted  and  advised  by  a  council,  the  members  of  which  council, 
(except  in  Massachusetts)  were  appointed  by  the  crown 
or  by  the  proprietor,  usually  upon  the  governor's  recom 
mendation.     The  council  was  thus  a  part  of  the  admin- 


134 


American  History 


Popular 
assemblies. 


Control  by 
the  British 
Govern 
ment. 


The  Board 
of  Trade. 


istrative  branch  of  government;  it  had  also  judicial  func 
tions,  in  certain  cases,  sitting  as  a  court  of  appeals;  finally, 
it  participated  in  legislative  work,  being  (in  every  colony 
except  Pennsylvania)  the  upper  house  of  the  colonial  leg 
islature.  It  was  natural  that  the  members  of  the  council 
should  have  been,  generally  speaking,  in  sympathy  with 
the  governor.  With  him  they  represented  the  external  au 
thority  of  government;  they  were  favorable  to  the  policy  of 
control  of  which  we  have  seen  the  beginnings  (p.  89),  and 
which  was  destined  to  develop  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  popular  element  in  the  colonial  governments,  rep 
resenting  the  spirit  of  self-government,  and  often  opposing 
the  policy  of  control,  was  found  in  the  representative  as 
semblies  which  were  elected  in  the  various  colonies.  The 
origin  of  these  assemblies  has  been  traced,  and  the  strug 
gles  by  which  they  acquired  legislative  powers,  that  of 
taxation,  especially,  have  been  noted.  In  the  enactment 
of  laws  the  assemblies  were  not  absolute;  for  the  council 
(except  in  Pennsylvania)  must  also  vote  its  consent,  and 
the  royal  and  proprietary  governors  had  the  power  of 
approving  or  vetoing  bills.  Finally,  the  crown  exercised 
the  right  of  veto  over  laws  which  were  disapproved  by 
its  advisers. 

The  policy  of  external  control  found  vigorous  expression 
in  the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  (1689- 
1702).  Colonial  governors  urged  upon  the  home  govern 
ment  a  firmer  and  more  uniform  system  of  colonial  gov 
ernment,  with  a  view  especially  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
navigation  laws  and  to  better  measures  of  military  action 
against  the  French.  In  1696,  a  new  body,  known  as  the 
"Board  of  Trade,"  consisting  of  members  of  the  Privy 
Council  and  other  men  interested  in  the  commercial  rela 
tions  of  England,  was  established  as  the  central  adminis 
trative  body  in  colonial  affairs.  Its  powers  were  advisory, 
but  it  exercised  considerable  influence  over  the  legislation 
of  Parliament  and  over  the  royal  instructions  issued  to 
colonial  governors.  An  effort  was  made  to  bring  the 


gation 
acts. 


English  Colonies  in  the  Eighteenth  Century     135 

governors  to  a  greater  sense  of  responsibility  in  the  enforce 
ment  of  laws  by  the  requirement  of  a  new  and  stricter  oath 
of  office.  For  the  better  enforcement  of  the  navigation 
laws,  courts  of  admiralty  were  set  up  in  the  colonies. 
These  courts  acting  without  juries  and  being  thus  beyond 
the  influence  of  local  sympathies,  aroused  the  enmity  of 
the  colonists. 

New  laws  of  trade  were  enacted  by  Parliament:  (1)  Col-  New  navi- 
onial  trade  in  wool  and  woollen  goods  was  prohibited,  and 
consequently  extensive  woollen  manufacture  was  impossible. 
This  was  a  measure  protective  of  British  manufactures,  and 
later  similar  protection  was  extended  to  hats  (1732)  and 
to  all  iron  manufactures  (1750)  beyond  the  stage  of  pig 
and  bar  iron.  (2)  Parliament  extended  the  list  of  enumer 
ated  articles  (see  p.  85),  that  could  be  shipped  to  England 
only,  by  the  inclusion  of  rice,  naval  stores,  and  ship  timber. 
As  an  offset  to  the  last  provision  a  bounty  was  granted  on 
naval  stores  exported  to  England,  which  was  intended  to 
encourage  their  production.  (3)  The  molasses  act  of 
1733  was  intended  to  foster  the  production  of  sugar  in 
the  British  West  Indies;  it  imposed  duties  so  high  as  to 
be  prohibitive  upon  all  sugar  and  molasses  imported  from 
the  French  and  the  Spanish  islands.  Since  the  latter  were 
the  main  source  of  supply  for  these  products,  and  since 
an  important  branch  of  colonial  trade  was  based  upon 
them  (p.  131),  the  observance  of  this  act  would  have 
been  a  serious  burden.  It  was  practically  a  dead  letter. 

On  the  side  of  administrative  control,  the  history  of  this 
period  shows  great  activity  on  the  part  of  the  Board  of   Recom- 
Trade  in  their  investigation  of  colonial  conditions  and  their  j^ffor 
recommendations  for  bringing  the  colonial  governments   imperial 
into  closer  conformity  with  the  home  government.     Had  c 
they  been  better  supported  by  the  ministry,  imperial  con 
trol  would  have  been  much  more  thorough,  and  colonial 
liberties  would  have  suffered  accordingly.     One  line  of 
action  recommended  by  the  Board  was  the  extinction  of 
the  proprietary  grants  and  of  the  Rhode  Island  and  Con- 


136 


American  History 


Conflicts 
between 
governors 
and  as 
semblies. 


Free 

represen 
tation. 


Officers 

and 

salaries. 


necticut  charters.  This  policy,  however,  vas  not  vigor 
ously  pursued.  The  Jerseys  became  royal  in  1702,  and 
later  the  Carolinas  (1729).  Georgia,  originally  proprietary, 
was  made  royal  (1754).  But  in  all  these  cases  popular 
discontent  with  the  proprietary  government  was  an  active 
cause  in  the  change. 

The  central  point  of  conflict  in  the  opposing  govern 
mental  tendencies  of  this  period  is  found  in  the  disputes 
that  arose  between  colonial  governors  and  assemblies. 
These  authorities  engaged  in  controversies  that  may  be 
grouped  into  three  classes:  (1)  The  assemblies  en 
deavored  to  control  the  making  of  representative  districts; 
to  secure  the  right  of  dissolving  their  own  sessions  inde 
pendently  of  the  governor's  will;  to  provide  for  frequent 
elections;  to  free  themselves  from  the  governor's  influence 
in  the  election  of  their  speakers;  and  to  judge  of  the  validity 
of  election  of  their  own  members. 

(2)  Many  bitter  controversies  arose  over  the  appoint 
ment  of  colonial  officers,  especially  treasurers;   also,  over 
the  question  of  salaries,  that  of  the  governor  in  particular. 
The  governors  followed  instructions  from  the  home  gov 
ernment  in  their  efforts  to  secure  permanent  salaries;  the 
assemblies,  on  the  other  hand,  insisted  upon  annual  grants 
of  salaries.    The  former  policy  would  render  the  governor 
more  independent  of  the  assembly  in  his  action;  the  latter 
would  give  the  assembly  a  very  effective  means  of  control 
ling  the  governor,  through  their  refusal  to  grant  a  salary 
until  he  conformed  to  some  popular  demand.    The  contro 
versy  over  this  matter  raged  in  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
South  Carolina,  and  Pennsylvania,  but  it  was  quite  uni 
formly  settled  in  favor  of  the  assemblies,  so  that  it  was  said 
that  every  governor  had  two  masters:   "one  who  gives 
him  his  commission,  and  one  who  gives  him  his  pay." 

(3)  In  their  efforts  to  exercise  control  over  public  money, 
the  colonists  proved  to  be  worthy  descendants  of  their 
English    ancestors.     The    assemblies   claimed    the   same 
rights  in  this  respect  as  the  House  of  Commons,  even  in 


CATECHISE, 


_  IT  £    S    T    I    O    N. 

tfTT'H/l'l  h    ibt "thief  end  cf 'a  modern  provintt«U  Governor  r* 
rr        AKsW£R.     A  msdtm  provincial Gt'V&rmY's <jh«et end!  is,  ta  fcrve 
i'A-  ffitm/Ier,  that  he  may  be  found  u^r/^y  to  e*y  >y  a  penfiott%  or  be  ad  van » 
con  to  »  better  ^to  through  his  favnsr. 

Q.    FP/Mt-rutt  kai  the  minifter  ^v?  modern  provincial  Go- 

msis, 

;>73  ,  an  '  ' '  '*  bound | 

V  is  tf/"-v»  a  ;o  direct  him  h,.w  he  may  ferve  tki 


ver 


nss  taught  a  m 


whatever  he 


. 


A.     A  v.'r.'/.'ir  is  a  Inrkcy^  but  lately  feetv 

ir*  £.«?^.  -vC,  uncomrcu'a'/e     Or"  'viidon^,  w!nch  none 

-.•«!» ?ca!  in  <••  eihu;i  :  Of  power  whtcii  TKHU  :   Of  hoiineU  fuch 

as  funs  his  ibnion  :  QfjuRice,  goodfiefsand  truth,  parallel  to  ft«-irttcre^| 

Q^   >^^  /^r"  mjr?  msniile^s  i'aan one  ? 

A.     They  have  appeared  in  the  different  forms  of  Grind 
roy,  Car^ina's,  &c.  yef  in  /?:;f.;r'*i»  and  IA 

Q^     //'7'jf  /??v?  th  decrees  cf  a  mi»ul1cr  :' 

!X.      I  h*  dtcrea  of  a   m:>::.'J:r  S'c   certain  orders*   vu!^^;' 
/?riiJT/i/';j,  ji;uf  i  ,  to  rta  csimtil  c 

his  own    /'A'-"/".-  *. ,  T  ?'-/.'V  or  r< 
£bi»-l»  con'i*/o p.if^.. 

Qi  /f.^x-1  <i';t/!'  Oae  minine'r  e'xxutc 

A       \\\  the  works  of  trftifan  and 


'^Cf: 

.-/Ji'v',  at  lia'ih  b< 


A  Satire  on  Royal  Government 


138 


American  History 


Public 
money  and 
taxation. 


The  tend 
ency 
toward 
self-gov 
ernment. 


The  com 
promise 
between 
imperial 
control 
and  self- 
govern 
ment. 


direct  contradiction  to  royal  instructions  sent  to  governors. 
They  resisted  the  efforts  of  councils  to  share  in  the  pas 
sage  of  taxation  bills;  they  insisted  that  appropriations 
should  be  made  for  specific  purposes,  instead  of  granting 
lump  sums  to  be  disbursed  at  the  governor's  discretion. 
All  efforts  of  the  governors  to  collect  fees  or  payments  as 
substitutes  for  taxation  were  resisted. 

In  these  contests  between  external  authority,  as  embodied 
in  the  governors,  and  popular  will,  as  represented  in  the 
assemblies,  the  popular  side  was  on  the  whole  successful. 
So  that  the  most  striking  feature  of  colonial  government 
during  this  period  is  not  the  extension  of  imperial  control, 
but  the  firm  assertion  of  colonial  rights.  The  colonists 
were  encouraged  in  this  assertion  by  a  growing  feeling  of 
economic  independence,  as  industries  became  more  stable; 
by  a  growing  feeling  of  common  interests,  as  intercom 
munication  became  easier  and  the  wars  with  the  French 
compelled  them  to  act  in  unison;  and  by  a  growing  con 
tempt  for  the  authority  of  the  home  government,  as  they 
continued  successfully  to  evade  the  navigation  laws  and 
as  they  won  victories  in  their  contests  with  the  colonial 
governors. 

The  issue  between  imperial  control  and  local  self- 
government  was  not  decided  in  this  period.  While  there 
came  about  no  formal  understanding  upon  the  subject, 
there  was  yet  a  practical  compromise,  which,  while  it  left 
some  irritation  in  the  minds  of  the  colonists,  was  yet  gen 
erally  satisfactory,  both  to  them  and  to  the  home  govern 
ment.  Had  this  condition  been  suffered  to  continue, 
colonial  loyalty  to  the  mother  country  would  not  have  been 
shaken.  It  remained  for  the  British  Government  to  under 
mine  the. foundations  of  colonial  allegiance  by  the  adop 
tion  of  "a  new  policy,"  to  be  discussed  in  a  later  chapter. 

GEORGIA 

It  was  almost  precisely  fifty  years  after  the  founding  of 
Pennsylvania  that  the  last  of  the  thirteen  English  colonies 


English  Colonies  in  the  Eighteenth  Century     139 

of  the  Atlantic  coast  was  established.  The  Carolinas  oc-  Reasons 
cupied  territory  that  was  claimed  by  Spain,  and  the  de-  colony, 
sirability  of  preventing  Spanish  aggression  led  to  the 
placing  of  forts  in  the  region  that  is  now  Georgia.  These 
were,  however,  but  temporary.  Here  also  there  was  com 
petition  for  Indian  trade  between  the  English  colonists 
and  the  French  traders  of  the  Gulf  coast.  The  English 
Government,  therefore,  gladly  granted  the  country  be 
tween  the  Savannah  and  the  Altamaha  rivers  to  a  com 
pany  of  twenty  or  more  prominent  gentlemen  who  pro 
posed  founding  a  colony  that  would  serve  as  an  outpost 
guaranteeing  English  possession  and  trade.  A  leading 
motive  in  the  undertaking,  and  the  one  upon  which  it  was 
initiated,  was  philanthropic.  George  Oglethorpe  was  an 
officer  in  the  English  army,  a  member  of  Parliament,  and 
a  man  of  much  ability  and  of  good  reputation.  Having 
served  upon  a  Parliamentary  committee  investigating  Eng 
lish  prisons,  he  was  moved  to  undertake  the  relief  of  worthy 
debtors  then  in  confinement  by  aiding  them  to  remove  to 
America.  Under  its  charter,  the  company,  known  as  "The 
Trustees,"  could  make  no  profit  from  the  enterprise,  but 
collected  funds  by  private  subscription  and  was  aided  by 
Parliamentary  grants.  Settlers  were  provided  with  arms, 
and  with  tools  and  food  sufficient  to  start  them  in  their  new 
life.  Roman  Catholics  were  excluded  from  the  colony. 

Savannah  was  founded  under  Oglethorpe's  personal 
supervision  in  1733.  Other  poor  and  worthy  persons  be 
sides  imprisoned  debtors  were  brought  to  the  colony,  and 
many  Germans  and  Scotch  Highlanders  also  received  as 
sistance.  The  latter  were  settled  on  the  southern  border 
of  the  colony  as  a  defensive  force.*  Each  family  was 
given  fifty  acres  of  land. 

The  Trustees,  endeavoring  to  establish  a  model  com-  Policy  of 
munity,  forbade  (1)  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors;  (2)  the  s' 

*  "Georgia,  more  nearly  than  any  of  the  North  American  provinces, 
approximates  the  Roman  conception  of  a  military  colony  planted  for  the 
defence  of  the  empire."  Greene,  Provincial  America,  260. 


140  American  History 

use  of  slaves,  and  (3)  the  alienation  of  land,  except  to  male 
heirs.  Within  a  few  years  complaints  arose  against  these 
restrictions.  They  served  to  keep  away  other  colonists, 
and,  silk  and  grape  production  having  proved  unprofitable, 
slaves  seemed  necessary,  especially  in  the  rice  fields.  The 
Trustees  finally  agreed  to  abolish  the  restrictions,  and  the 
colony  then  grew  more  rapidly.  In  1760,  the  population 
(10,000)  was  becoming  typically  Southern  in  economic 
and  social  life. 

A  royal  Once  Oglethorpe  led  a  military  force  against  the  Spanish 

lce-      in  Florida,  and  later  the  Spanish  unsuccessfully  attacked 

the  colony.     In  1754  the  Trustees  surrendered  the  colony 

to  the  crown.     Then  there  was  established  the  typical 

colonial  government,  with  royal  governor,   council,  and 

.  elected  assembly. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Life  in  Virginia.     Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  II,  28-44;  205-241. 
Hart,   Contemporaries,   I,   301-306;  235-238.     Thwaites,  The 
Colonies,  chap.  5. 

2.  New  England  Life.     Lodge,  English  Colonies,  441^56. 
Thwaites,  chap.  8.     Earle,  Customs  and  Fashions  in  Old  New 
England. 

3.  Make  a  comparison  of  the  New  England  colonies  with  Vir 
ginia  on  the  following  points:  (1)  Motives  of  settlers.     (2)  Meth 
ods  of  settlement.     (3)  Industries.     (4)  Government.     (5)  In 
fluence  of  religion.     (6)  Relations  with  Indians.     In  this  con 
nection,  review  chapter  7. 

4.  Dutch  life  in  New  York.    Fiske,  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colo 
nies,  II,  264-288.     Thwaites,  chap.  10.     Lodge,  312-339.     Hart, 
Contemporaries,   II,  576-579.     Earle,  Colonial   Days  in  Old 
New  York. 

5.  Quaker   life.     Hart,    Contemporaries,    II,    65-68.     Fiske, 
Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies,  II,  320-329.     Lodge,  237-262. 

6.  Colonial    commerce.    Thwaites,    103-106;    185-186;   226. 
Lodge,  409-411.     Coman,  Industrial  History  of  United  States, 
72-79.    Greene,  Provincial  America,  283-291. 

7.  The  navigation  laws.    Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  II,  45-53;  111- 


English  Colonies  in  the  Eighteenth  Century     141 

113.  Thwaites,  see  Index.  Coman,  Industrial  History  of  United 
States,  79-83.  Bogart,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States, 
34-46. 

8.  Colonial  industries,  Bogart,  49-60.     Colonial  farm  imple 
ments,  66,  68,  73.     Greene,  Provincial  America,  270-282. 

9.  Colonial  governments.     Fisher,  Colonial  Era,  60;  165-167; 
208-211.     Thwaites,  53-63.     Channing,  The  United  States,  26- 
29;  33-38.     Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  5-17.     Wilson,  The 
State,  449-469. 

10.  Source  material,  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  Ameri 
can  History,  chap.  9. 

11.  Historical  fiction.      Cooke,  The  Virginian   Comedians. 
Hawthorne,  Twice-told  Tales.     Johnston,  Audrey. 

12.  Interesting  and  valuable  are  Earle,  Child  Life  in  Colonial 
Days,  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  and  Curious  Punishments 
of  Bygone  Days. 


The  mer 
cantile 
system. 


Beneficial 
features. 


CHAPTER  X 

CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION 

THE  navigation  laws  have  been  noticed  (pp.  85,  86,  135) 
as  an  ever-present  source  of  irritation  between  England  and 
her  colonies.  These  laws  were  based  upon  an  economic 
theory  known  as  the  "mercantile  system."  *  This  in 
cluded  the  idea  that  colonies  exist  for  the  benefit  of  the 
parent  state;  they  were,  indeed,  to  be  protected  and  fostered 
by  parental  care,  but  in  a  conflict  of  economic  interests  the 
colonies  were  to  be  subordinate.  For  the  benefit,  of  Eng 
lish  merchants  and  ship  owners,  trade  must  be  controlled 
by  restrictive  acts  instead  of  being  allowed  to  take  its 
natural  course. 

The  laws  regulating  colonial  manufactures  illustrate  an 
other  idea  of  the  mercantile  system;  viz.,  that  the  manu 
facturing  processes  are  of  greatest  value  in  a  country's 
industry,  and  consequently  these  must  be  confined  to  the 
mother  country;  while  her  colonies  should  furnish  raw  ma 
terials  and  should  purchase  the  manufactured  products. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  colonists,  on  the  other  hand, 
competition  with  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  of  Eng 
land  and  free  trade  with  other  countries  was  their  best 
economic  policy,  and  hence,  they  reasoned,  it  was  their 
natural  right. 

Some  features  of  the  navigation  laws  fostered  colonial  indus 
tries.  New  England  shipping  received  an  impetus  through  the 
exclusion  of  foreign  vessels  from  England's  commerce.  Bounties 
were  paid  in  England  upon  the  importation  of  indigo,  naval 
stores,  and  timber  from  the  colonies.  Again,  the  sugar  act  of 

*  Adam  Smith  in  his  Wealth  of  Nations  (1776)  overthrew  this 
theory,  and  laid  the  foundations  for  modern  economic  thought. 

142 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  143 

1733  was  purposely  left  a  dead  letter,  and  much  of  the  most  profit 
able  export  trade  was  under  no  restriction  whatever.  In  judg 
ing  the  navigation  acts  we  should  remember  that  the  same 
principles  ruled  in  all  European  governments  of  that  time. 
A  comparison  of  the  Spanish  (p.  24)  and  French  (p.  118)  re 
strictive  systems  with  English  policy  will  readily  showiiow  much 
more  liberal  was  the  last. 

The  suppression  of  colonial  manufactures  (beyond  the  Theexecu- 
purely  home  stage)  was  in  the  main  successful;  but  in  only   navigation 
limited  sections  of  the  colonies  was  there  any  economic  laws, 
profit  in  extensive  manufactures.     Consequently,  little  dis 
advantage  was  suffered  from  this  restriction.     Concern 
ing  trade,  the  opposite  was  true.     All  the  colonies  depended 
upon  European  manufactures,  and  semi-tropical  products; 
and  these  could  be  paid  for  only  by  colonial  exports.    Hence 
the  economic  necessity  of  the  situation  made  the  violation 
of  the  navigation  acts  profitable.     It  is  estimated  that  in 
1760  nine-tenths  of  the  colonial  imports  were  smuggled. 
The  cost  of  the  English  revenue  system  in  the  colonies  was 
four  times  the  amount  collected. 

There  was  regular  illicit  trade  with  the  West  Indies,  Mediter 
ranean  ports,  and  Holland.  The  desire  for  profit  was  stronger 
than  law  or  commercial  honor;  and  when  it  appeared  that  the 
English  Government  was  too  careless,  or  too  inefficient,  to  en 
force  the  laws  it  was  no  longer  considered  culpable  to  violate 
them.  The  connivance  of  English  officers  made  smuggling 
easier.  The  landing  of  goods  in  obscure  ports  and  the  false 
declarations  as  to  the  destination  of  vessels  and  their  cargoes 
are  samples  of  the  shrewd  tricks  that  circumvented  the  laws. 

During  the  last  French  and  Indian  war  there  were  in-  Thedis- 
stances  of  the  seizure  of  smuggled  goods  by  virtue  of  wrifs°oTr 
" writs   of   assistance" — a   kind   of   search   warrant.     In  assistance. 
1661,  application  was  made  by  Charles  Paxton,  surveyor 
of  the  port  of  Boston,  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachu 
setts  for  authority  to  use  these  writs.   The  right  of  the  court 
to  grant  the  authority  wras  challenged  by  certain  Boston 
merchants,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  general  rather 
than  special  warrants.     They  were  directed  to  any  officer 
into  whose  possession  they  might  fall ;  they  authorized  of- 


144 


A  merican  II istory 


Otis's 
speech. 


The 

"New 

Policy. 


The  sugar 
act,  1764. 


ficers  to  enter  and  search  any  place  and  to  seize  any  goods, 
merely  upon  suspicion,  instead  of  particularly  describing 
the  places  to  be  searched  and  the  goods  to  be  seized.* 
The  court  declared  the  writs  to  be  legal,  and  they  were  sub 
sequently  used  in  the  discovery  of  smuggled  goods. 

The  case  was  argued  for  the  merchants  by  James  Otis,  who 
showed  that  their  issuance  would  be  a  violation  of  the  "  spirit  of 
the  British  Constitution,"  and  a  reversal  of  the  long  historical 
movement  toward  individual  liberty  that  occupies  such  a  prom 
inent  place  in  English  history.  He  also  declared  with  much  fire 
and  eloquence  that  the  enforcement  of  the  navigation  laws  meant 
the  subjection  of  the  colonists  to  obnoxious  laws  that  they  had 
no  share  in  making.  His  speech  had  great  influence  upon  the 
people;  for  it  first  clearly  defined  the  issue  of  Parliamentary 
supremacy  in  the  colonies. 

The  head  of  the  British  ministry  was  now  (1763)  George 
Grenville,  an  able  man,  but  lacking  in  breadth  of  view, 
tact,  and  statesman-like  qualities.  He  determined  that  the 
inconsistencies  in  colonial  relations  and  the  inefficiency  of 
the  Government's  control  should  cease.  The  three  points 
of  his  "new  policy"  were: 

(1)  The  enforcement  of  the  navigation  laws. 

(2)  The  placing  of  a  standing  army  in  the  colonies. 

(3)  The  partial  support  of  this  army  by  a  colonial  tax. 

This  policy  seemed  to  be  justified  by  new  conditions  that 
followed  the  Seven  Years'  War.  England's  debt  (£140,000,000) 
demanded  the  severest  economy  of  resources.  The  danger  from 
the  French  in  America  was  not  over.  The  years  1763-1764  saw 
Pontiac's  rebellion,  when  the  frontier  of  the  middle  colonies  was 
swept  by  war.  At  the  same  time  Indian  attacks  threatened  the 
frontiers  of  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas.  For  efficient  protection 
a  standing  army  seemed  necessary,  and  in  Grenville's  judgment 
the  expense  should  be  shared  by  the  colonists. 

The  sugar  act  of  1764  announced  as  one  of  its  objects 
the  raising  of  a  revenue  in  the  colonies.  The  terms  of  the 
molasses  act  of  1733  (see  p.  135)  were  altered  so  that  if 
the  duties  were  enforced  they  would  yield  considerable 

*  Compare  Amendment  IV  of  the  United  States  Constitution  and  a  cor 
responding  clause  of  your  State  Constitution. 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  145 

revenue.  High  duties  were  levied  on  other  imports.  The 
enforcement  of  the  sugar  act,  said  the  New  Englanders, 
would  seriously  injure,  if  not  absolutely  ruin,  the  West 
Indian  trade  and  also  the  fishing  industry  that  depended 
upon  it.  There  now  came  a  storm  of  protests  from  colo 
nial  assemblies  and  their  agents  in  England. 

Such  was  the  ominous  situation  into  which  Grenville  The 
now   introduced   a   most   powerful   stimulant  of  discon- 
tent — the  proposition  for  a  stamp  tax  to  be  levied  in 
America. 

Calling  together  the  colonial  agents  in  London  (1764),  Gren 
ville  announced  his  purpose  of  raising  one-third  of  the  expense 
necessary  for  maintaining  10,000  troops  in  the  colonies.  As  the 
agents  could  propose  no  satisfactory  alternative,  in  the  absence 
of  a  central  authority  in  America,  Grenville  asserted  that  Parlia 
ment  must  assume  the  responsibility  and  enact  the  least  burden 
some  tax  possible.  The  law  (1765)  required  the  use  of  stamps 
(or  stamped  paper)  upon  legal  instruments  (such  as  bonds,  leases, 
etc.),  and  upon  newspapers,  bills  of  lading,  playing  cards,  and 
almanacs.  No  part  of  the  money  was  to  be  employed  otherwise 
than  in  defraying  the  expense  of  the  army  in  America. 

The  smouldering  fires  of  discontent  in  America  now  burst  Colonial 
into  flame.  Everywhere  there  were  public  meetings  and  °PP°sition- 
demonstrations  of  disapproval.  In  the  Virginia  House  of 
Burgesses  Patrick  Henry  spoke  out  colonial  sentiments  in 
a  burst  of  oratory.  Resolutions  drawn  up  by  Henry  were 
adopted,  boldly  claiming  the  sole  right  of  taxation  to 
reside  in  the  colonial  assemblies.  These  resolutions  had 
great  influence  in  other  colonies.  Everywhere  in  the 
colonies  there  were  organized  patriotic  clubs  called 
"Sons  of  Liberty,"*  and  among  these  a  lively  corre 
spondence  ensued.  Meanwhile,  citizens  entered  into 
agreements  not  to  buy  English  manufactures,  and  col 
onial  merchants  threatened  to  pay  no  debts  owed  in 
England  until  the  act  was  repealed.  Riots  occurred  in 

*  For  the  origin  of  the  name,  see  Frothingham,  Rise  of  the  Republic, 
175-183.  Lamed,  History  for  Ready  Reference,  United  States,  1765. 
Bancroft,  III,  110-112. 


146 


American  History 


The 

Stamp  Act. 
Congress, 
1765. 


several  colonies.*  Stamp  collectors  were  publicly  abused, 
stamps  were  destroyed,  and  the  people  utterly  refused 
to  use  them. 

Meanwhile,  upon  the  suggestion  of  the  Massachusetts 
assembly,  a  general  congress  of  the  colonies  met  in  New 
York  on  October  7,  1765.  Delegates  were  present  from 


Benjamin  Franklin 

From  a  medallion  by  Jean  Martin  Renaud 

nine  colonies;  among  them  were  James  Otis,  Christopher 
Gadsden    (South    Carolina),    John   Dickinson    (Pennsyl- 

*  The  most  notable  riot  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  Lieutenant- 
Governor  Hutchinson's  house  in  Boston.  This  gentleman,  whose  real 
character  and  motives  have  until  recent  years  been  misunderstood,  was 
opposed  to  the  Parliamentary  policy,  but  saw  no  alternative  to  its  en 
forcement.  He  incurred  the  bitterest  enmity  of  the  popular  leaders, 
among  whom  were  James  Otis  and  Samuel  Adams. 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  147 

vania),  and  Philip  Livingston  (New  York).  Though  not 
unanimous  in  opinion,  the  Congress  agreed  upon  a  Declara 
tion  of  Rights,  and  Addresses  to  the  King  and  both  Houses 
of  Parliament.  Their  Declaration  breathes  at  once  the 
spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  King  and  Parliament  and  firm  ad 
herence  to  the  principle,  "no  taxation  without  representa 
tion."  Their  rights  were  declared  to  be  those  of  natural- 
born  citizens  of  Great  Britain.  The  importance  of  this 
Congress  in  forming  public  opinion  and  fostering  the  spirit 
of  united  action  among  the  thirteen  colonies  cannot  be 
overestimated. 

Upon  the  grounds  of  expediency  the  Stamp  Act  was  re-  The  repeal 
pealed  in  1766.  The  following  reasons  account  for  this:  g^^6  Act 
(1)  There  had  been  a  change  of  ministry;  the  Whigs, 
under  Rockingham,  were  disposed  toward  a  more  lenient 
colonial  policy  and  were  anxious  to  obtain  the  favor  of 
the  mercantile  classes.  (2)  In  his  testimony  before  the 
House  of  Commons,  Benjamin  Franklin  pointed  out  the 
fact  that  by  persisting  in  their  opposition  the  colonies 
could  ruin  British  trade  and  build  up  manufactures  for 
themselves.  (3)  English  merchants  and  manufacturers, 
already  feeling  the  evil  effects  of  colonial  anger,  deluged 
Parliament  with  petitions  for  the  repeal. 

The  colonial  denial  of  Parliament's  right  to  levy  this  tax  was 
explained  by  Franklin,  who  drew  the  distinction  between  ex 
ternal  and  internal  taxes.  He  said:  "The  authority  of  Parlia 
ment  was  allowed  to  be  valid  in  all  laws,  except  such  as  should 
lay  internal  taxes.  It  was  never  disputed  in  laying  duties  to 
regulate  commerce." 

Some  members  of  Parliament  rested  the  right  of  colonial  taxa-    The  theory 
tion  upon  the  theory  of  "virtual  representation,"  thus  stated  in   of  virtual 
the  words  of  Lord  Mansfield:  "  A  member  of  Parliament,  chosen    represen- 
f  rom  any  borough,  represents  not  only  the  constituents  and  inhab 
itants  of  that  particular  place,  but  ...  all  the  other  commons  of 
this  land,  and  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  colonies  and  dominions 
of  Great  Britain."     This  can  be  understood  only  in  the  light  of 
conditions  then  existing  in  England  under  the  "  rotten  borough  " 
system.*     The  theory  was  not  accepted  by  Burke  or  by  Pitt. 

*  Gardiner,  History  of  England,  713-714. 


148  American  History 

The  idea  was  certainly  incomprehensible  to  Americans,  among 
whom  a  very  different  system  of  representation  had  grown  up. 
The  De-  A  "Declaratory  Act"  accompanied  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp 

claratory       Act.     It  proclaimed  the  right  of  Parliament  to  make  all  laws  to 
Act,  1766.     kind  the  colonies  in  all  cases  whatsoever.     This  act  was  over 
looked  in  the  midst  of  the  general  rejoicing  that  followed  the 
repeal. 

The  Town-  The  colonists  now  desired  nothing  better  than  the  restor- 
actsT1  ation  of  the  former  relations  with  the  British  Government. 
1767.  But  the  latter  adopted  the  disastrous  policy  that  led  to 

American  independence.  A  new  ministry  was  formed 
(July,  1766),  with  William  Pitt,  now  Lord  Chatham,  at 
its  head.  But  a  prolonged  illness  made  Chatham's  leader 
ship  only  nominal.  The  colonial  policy  was  dictated  in 
stead  by  Charles  Townshend,  Chancellor  of  the  Ex 
chequer,  "a  brilliant  statesman,  but  unscrupulous  and 
unwise."  (1)  Townshend  proposed  to  raise  a  revenue  by 
duties  upon  paper,  tea,*  glass,  lead,  and  painters'  colors  im 
ported  into  the  colonies.  Since  the  purpose  of  the  new 
duties  was  the  raising  of  revenue,  instead  of  the  control  of 
commerce,  the  colonists  regarded  them  as  "internal  taxes," 
and  so  beyond  the  power  of  Parliament.  (2)  The  enforce 
ment  of  revenue  laws  was  rendered  difficult  by  the  fact 
that  judges  and  crown  attorneys  were  paid  by  colonial 
legislatures  and  were  consequently  under  their  influence. 
Townshend  proposed  that  these  officers  should  be  paid 
from  the  customs  receipts.  (3)  It  was  very  difficult  to 
find  a  colonial  jury  that  would  convict  smugglers  for  viola 
tion  of  the  trade  laws.  For  the  trial  of  such  cases  Town 
shend  proposed  to  establish  courts  of  admiralty,  in  which 
there  were  no  juries.  (4)  A  Board  of  Commissioners  was 
created,  to  be  resident  in  the  colonies,  who  were  to  secure 
more  efficient  administration  of  the  navigation  and  rev- 

*  This  duty  was  3d.  a  pound.  Under  this  law,  when  tea  was  imported 
into  England,  paying  there  a  duty  of  about  25  per  cent.,  and  was  sub 
sequently  exported  to  America,  the  duty  was  paid  back  to  the  exporter; 
and  in  this  Way  it  was  expected  that  tea  could  be  sold  more  cheaply  in 
America  than  in  England.  Am.  Hist.  Review,  III,  266. 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  149 


enue  laws.  Such  were  the  Townshend  acts  passed  by 
Parliament  in  1767. 

The  colonial  response  to  these  acts  was  prompt  and   Measures 
decisive.     (1)  The  non-importation  agreements  that  fol-  ancet^th 

lowed  the  Stamp  Act  colonies. 
were  renewed  and  with 
them  were  non-con 
sumption  agreements. 
(2)  Colonial  protests 
were  voiced  by  the  writ 
ings  of  John  Dickinson 
of  Pennsylvania,  who, 
in  his  "I%rmers  Let 
ters,"  stated  the  colonial 
position  so  cogently  that 
public  opinion  wras  uni 
ted  in  opposition.  (3) 
A  similar  service  was 
performed  by  Samuel 
Adams,  from  whose  pen 
came  a  series  of  peti 
tions  directed  to  the 
King  and  other  English 
officials,  and  a  circular 

letter  adopted  by  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts  and 
directed  to  the  other  colonial  assemblies.  The  British 
ministry  regarded  this  circular  letter  as  an  insult,  and 
ordered  the  general  court  to  rescind  it;  but  the  proposal 
to  rescind  was  resolutely  voted  down.  As  punishment  for 
the  adoption  of  certain  resolutions  (1769),  the  governor 
of  Virginia  dissolved  the  House  of  Burgesses.  But  its 
members  met  the  following  day  and  adopted  a  non 
importation  plan. 

The  year  1768  saw  the  landing  of  two  regiments  of  British 
British   troops   in    Boston;    there   followed    considerable  Boston!" 
friction  over  the  question  of  providing  them  with  quarters. 
It  is  not  strange  that  a  settled  state  of  animosity  existed 


John  Dickinson,  of  Pennsylvania 

From  a  painting  by  C.  \V.  Peale,  1791 


150 


American  History 


between  citizens  and  soldiers  and  that  the  outcome  should 
be  a  clash  between  the  latter  and  the  disorderly  element  of 
the  city.  The  "Boston  massacre"  (March,  1770),  re 
sulting  in  the  death  of  five  persons  and  the  wounding  of 
six,  greatly  inflamed 
popular  passions. 
The  more  conserva 
tive  element,  depre 
cating  the  use  of  vio 
lence,  approved  the 
position  of  John 
Adams  and  Josiah 
Quincy,  Jf.,  who 
acted  as  lawyers  for 
the  soldiers  in  the 
trial  that  ensued. 
Through  the  influ 
ence  of  Samuel 
Adams,  Lieutenant- 
Governor  Hutchin- 
son  was  obliged  to 
remove  the  troops  to 
Castle  William  in  the 
harbor. 

Samuel  Adams,  the  most  influential  leader  in  Massachusetts, 
displayed  great  skill  as  an  agitator  and  a  moulder  of  public  opin 
ion.  He  showed  also  remarkable  ability  as  a  writer,  in  stating 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  colonial  resistance.  John  Adams, 
his  relative,  was  a  young  lawyer  of  brilliant  qualities,  but  more 
conservative  and  better  balanced  than  Samuel.  His  influence 
was  destined  to  grow. 

Lord  North  was  now  Prime  Minister,  and  this  meant  the 
complete  dominance  of  George  III.  The  motion  was 
made  in  the  House  of  Commons  (1770)  to  repeal  all  the 
duties  of  the  Townshend  acts  except  that  on  tea.  The 
vote  on  this  policy  wTas  carried  by  the  "King's  friends" 
against  the  protests  of  Chatham  and  Grenville,  who 
plainly  saw  its  folly. 


Samuel  Adams 

From  a  portrait  by  John  Singleton  Copley,  in  the  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts.  Boston 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  151 

Lord  North  was  "  an  easy-going,  obstinate  man,  with  a  quick  George  III. 
wit  and  a  sweet  temper."  George  III  was  but  twenty-two  years 
of  age  when  he  came  to  the  throne  in  1760.  He  had  persistently 
followed  a  course  that  was  in  accordance  with  his  early  training 
and  the  emphatic  injunction  of  his  mother,  "George,  be  king!" 
To  secure  a  dominant  influence  over  Parliament  he  used  the  cor 
rupt  means  that  had  flourished  under  the  Old  Whig  supremacy. 
He  then  entered  upon  a  bitter  contest  with  the  colonies  and  with 
the  friends  of  liberal  government  in  England.  For  the  latter, 
too,  the  principle  of  adequate  representation  was  at  stake. 

George  III  and  his  ministers   now  issued   "royal  in-  Goverment 
structions"  to  colonial  governors  ordering  acts  that  were  on^by1 
often  in  violation  of  both  colonial  customs  and  charters,   royal  in- 
In  Massachusetts  and  South  Carolina,  the  assemblies  were 
removed  from  the  capitals  to  other  places.     In  several 
colonies  assemblies  were  ordered  dissolved;  royal  officials 
in  Maryland  and  North  Carolina  demanded  fees  that  were 
virtually  taxes;  in  other  instances  local  governments  were 
interfered    with    by    these    instructions.     The    efforts    of 
Virginia  to  check  the  importation  of  slaves  were  negatived. 
In  these  ways,  the  King  was  arbitrarily  legislating  for  the 
colonies. 

When  the  sessions  of  the  Massachusetts  general  court  origin  of 
were  interfered  with,  the  Boston  town  meeting  passed  a 
resolution,  conceived  by  Samuel  Adams,  resulting  in  the 
establishment  of  "committees  of  correspondence"  in  each 
of  eighty  or  more  towns  (1772).  Thus  was  promoted  unity 
of  thought  and  feeling.  In  Virginia,  a  motion  was  carried 
in  the  House  of  Burgesses  that  a  committee  of  correspond 
ence  be  appointed  to  communicate  with  similar  committees 
in  other  colonies. 

After  the  repeal  of  the  duties  (except  that  on  tea),  in  The  tea 
1770,  there  was  a  revival  of  trade  between  England  and 
the  colonies;  but  the  colonists  still  smuggled  tea  and  re 
fused  to  patronize  the  British  East  India  Company.  In 
1773  the  King  determined  to  bring  about  the  payment  of 
duties  on  tea,  and  thus  to  secure  a  practical  recognition 
of  the  Parliamentary  right  to  tax.  The  British  East  India 


152 


American  History 


The  Retal 
iatory  or 
Coercive 
acts, 
1774. 


The 

Quebec 

Act. 


Company  was  allowed  to  send  several  cargoes  to  the  colonies 
under  such  conditions  that  the  purchasers  would  pay  still 
lower  prices  than  before.  The  colonists  refused  to  be 
caught  in  this  trap;  to  them  the  duty  was  nothing,  the 
principle  everything.  In  New  York  and  Philadelphia  the 
cargoes  were  sent  back;  at  Charleston,  the  agents  were 
forced  to  resign.  At  Boston,  where  the  consignees  stood 
ready  to  receive  the  tea,  the  people  would  not  permit  its 
landing.  When  the  officers  were  about  to  force  its  landing 
it  was  suddenly  dumped  into  the  harbor  (December,  1773). 
This  incident  aroused  the  extreme  resentment  of  the 
British  ministry,  and  under  the  King's  direction  Par 
liament  passed  a  series  of  acts  in  retaliation  (1774). 
(1)  The  Boston  port  bill  ordered  the  cessation  of  all  com 
merce  at  that  port  until  the  tea  (valued  at  £18,000)  should 
be  paid  for.  (2)  Another  act  revised  the  charter  of  Massa 
chusetts,  making  members  of  the  council  appointees  of 
the  crown.  The  powers  of  the  governor  were  greatly  ex 
tended;  he  was  to  appoint  and  remove  judges  and  sheriffs, 
the  latter  having  the  selection  of  juries.  (3)  Government 
officers  charged  with  murder  committed  in  the  perform 
ance  of  their  duties  might  be  taken  out  of  the  colonies  for 
trial.  (4)  The  quartering  act  gave  complete  authority  to 
royal  officers  for  the  hiring  of  vacant  buildings  as  quarters 
for  the  soldiers. 

The  Quebec  act  was  classed  by  the  colonists  with  the  four  just 
mentioned;  but  it  was  not  passed  in  the  same  spirit  of  retaliation. 
It  extended  the  boundary  of  Quebec  to  include  the  territory  be 
tween  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Ohio  River,  and  established  the 
government  for  that  province,  providing  full  toleration  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion. 

Sympathy  for  Boston,  suffering  under  the  port  bill, 
stimulated  the  spirit  of  union.*  From  the  Massachusetts 

*  South  Carolina  and  Maryland  sent  to  Boston  corn  and  rice.  Salem 
and  Marblehead  offered  free  the  use  of  their  wharves  and  warehouses. 
George  Washington  subscribed  ^50,  and  Israel  Putnam  drove  a  flock  of 
sheep  from  Connecticut  to  Boston.  Resolutions  of  sympathy  in  the 
Virginia  house  of  burgesses  led  to  its  dissolution. 


Carpenters'  Hall,  Philadelphia 
Where  the  First  Continental  Congress  met 


154 


American  History 


Concilia 
tion  pro 
posed. 


Lexington 
and  Con 
cord, 
April  19, 
1775. 


Assembly  there  came  the  proposal  for  a  Congress  to  be 
held  at  Philadelphia,  September  1,  1774. 

The  First  Continental  Congress  was  the  logical  result 
of  many  preparatory  steps  in  the  direction  of  union. 
Fifty-five  delegates  represented  all  the  colonies  but  Georgia. 
Its  acts  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  (1)  It  passed  reso 
lutions  of  sympathy  and  encouragement  for  Boston  and 
Massachusetts.  (2)  A  petition  to  the  King  asked  re 
moval  of  grievances,  but  claimed  loyalty  to  England. 
(3)  Addresses  were  issued  to  the  people  of  England  and 
Canada.  (4)  A  remarkable  paper,  known  as  the  "Decla 
ration  and  Resolves  "  stated  fully  the  grievances  of  the  col 
onists  and  their  principles  of  government.  (5)  An  "  Asso 
ciation"  was  adopted,  binding  the  colonists  not  to  import 
or  consume  British  goods  after  December,  1774,  and  not  to 
export  goods  to  England  or  her  colonies  after  September, 
1775.  As  the  enforcement  of  previous  similar  agreements 
had  proved  to  be  difficult,  Congress  advised  the  appoint 
ment  of  committees  in  every  locality  who  should  recom 
mend  that  the  colonists  should  have  no  dealings  with  per 
sons  who  would  not  observe  this  policy.  Such  committees 
were  quite  generally  organized.  These,  together  with  the 
committees  of  correspondence  and  committees  of  safety, 
assumed  governmental  authority  and  constituted,  in  reality, 
revolutionary  governments. 

Several  propositions  were  introduced  into  Parliament 
looking  toward  reconciliation  with  the  colonies.  Chatham 
would  have  retained  the  Continental  Congress  as  a  per 
manent  body.  Burke,  in  a  speech  that  ranks  foremost 
among  the  great  argumentative  orations  of  history,  pleaded 
for  the  repeal  of  the  oppressive  acts. 

In  Massachusetts  the  militia  was  completely  organized, 
"minute-men"  were  ready  for  instant  mobilization,  and 
stores  of  war  materials  had  been  collected.  General 
Gage's  effort  to  capture  such  stores  at  Lexington  and  Con 
cord  led  to  the  memorable  fight  of  the  19th  of  April,  1775. 
Its  outcome,  the  complete  discomfiture  of  the  British  regu- 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  155 


lars,  gave  courage  to  the  patriots  and  brought  to  the  vi 
cinity  of  Boston  15,000  troops  from  the  New  England 
colonies.  Then  began  the  siege  of  Boston,  which  lasted 
nearly  a  year. 


syu 


si. 


The  Vicinity  of  Boston  During  the  Siege,  1775-1776 

Meanwhile,  the  Continental  Congress  met  again,  May  The  Sec- 
10,  1 775.*  The  necessity  for  military  action  being  recog-  nentai°n 
nized,  the  army  around  Boston  was  adopted  as  the  Con-  Congress, 
tinental  Army,  and  it  was  voted  to  raise  companies  of  ex-  1775~178 
pert  riflemen  in  other  colonies.  On  June  15,  Colonel  George 
Washington  was  elected  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Continental  Army.  Congress  then  voted  to  issue  $2,000,- 
000  in  paper  money. 

On  June  17,  1775,  was  fought  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
The  intention  of  the  Continental  troops  in  fortifying  Charles- 
town  peninsula  was  to  anticipate  such  a  movement  on  the  part 

*  In  the  early  hours  of  the  same  day,  Ethan  Allen,  commanding  a  few 
soldiers  from  New  England,  surprised  the  British  garrison  at  Fort  Ti- 
conderoga  and  compelled  its  surrender.  A  few  days  later  Crown  Point 
was  taken. 


156 


American  History 


The  Battle 
of  Bunker 
Hill. 


War  to  se 
cure  the 
"rights  of 
English 
men." 


The 

growth  of 
indepen 
dence  sen 
timent. 


The 

evacuation 
of  Boston. 


of  the  British  and  to  command  a  portion  of  Boston  harbor  with 
their  guns.  The  blunder  of  the  Americans  in  fortifying  Breed's 
instead  of  Bunker's  hill  was  offset  by  the  greater  blunder  of  the 
British  in  making  a  front  attack,  instead  of  capturing  the  neck 
of  the  peninsula,  where  they  might  have  cut  off  the  Americans 
and  compelled  their  surrender.  The  defeat,  at  first  depressing, 
later  gave  confidence  to  the  patriots,  since  the  British  lost  heavily 
in  men  and  officers  and  gained  no  ground. 

In  July,  the  Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia,  under 
pressure  of  its  conservative  members,  adopted  another 
petition  to  George  III,  and  promulgated  a  statement  of 
causes  for  taking  up  arms.  The  latter  declared:  "We 
mean  not  to  dissolve  that  union  which  has  so  long  and  so 
happily  subsisted  between  us,  and  which  we  sincerely  wish 
to  see  restored.  .  .  .  We  have  not  raised  armies  with  am 
bitious  designs  of  separating  from  Great  Britain,  and 
establishing  independent  states."  However  much  the  rad 
ical  leaders  may  have  desired  independence,  their  follow 
ers  were  comparatively  few.  Franklin,  Jay,  Washington, 
and  Madison  all  testify  that  in  the  summer  of  1775  there 
was  no  general  desire  among  the  people  for  independence. 

But  this  situation  was  changed  by  the  contemptuous  atti 
tude  of  King  George  in  his  refusal  to  receive  either  the 
petition  of  Congress  or  the  messenger  who  carried  it.  In 
stead,  the  King  issued  a  Proclamation  declaring  his  Ameri 
can  subjects  to  be  rebels  and  threatening  their  punishment. 
Worse  yet  was  his  policy  of  hiring  troops  in  Germany. 
During  the  months  that  followed  these  events,  the  radical 
patriots  had  little  difficulty  in  convincing  a  majority  of  the 
people  that  reconciliation  was  impossible  and  that  indepen 
dence  was  the  logical  outcome  of  the  conflict. 

In  the  army  besieging  Boston,  the  lack  of  discipline  and 
of  supplies  was  the  despair  of  the  commander.  Finally, 
Washington  made  a  bold  move  in  ordering  the  fortifica 
tion  of  Dorchester  Heights,  commanding  Boston  harbor. 
The  British  hesitated  to  attack,  and  soon  loaded  the  troops 
and  1,000  Tories  aboard  vessels  and  sailed  away  to  Hali 
fax  (March,  1776). 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  157 


A  daring  invasion  of  Canada  was  made  during  the  winter  of 
1775-1776  by  armies  under  Richard  Montgomery  and  Benedict 
Arnold.  It  failed,  through  mismanagement;  the  French  people 
of  Canada  were  alienated  by  ill-treatment  at  the  hands  of  the 
colonial  troops,  and  the  province  remained  loyal. 

In    various   colonies    royal  governors  were  driven  out  Movement 
and   provincial   congresses    assumed    governmental    con-  incTepen- 

trol.  This  was  espe-  dence. 
cially  true  in  New  Eng 
land  and  the  South, 
but  in  the  middle  col 
onies  the  Tory  party 
was  at  least  equal  to  the 
patriot  faction.  Con 
gress  took  decisive  ac 
tion  on  May  10,  1776, 
in  advising  that  each 
colony  should  adopt  its. 
own  permanent  repub 
lican  government.  This 
was  the  prelude  to  the 
motion  of  Richard 
Henry  Lee  made  in 
Congress,  June  7,  that 
"these  United  Colonies 
are  and  of  right  ought 
to  be,  free  and  independent  States."  The  motion  was 
seconded  by  John  Adams. 

On  June  8th  and  10th  Lee's  motion  was  debated,  but  further  The  Dec- 
debate  was  postponed  until  the  members  could  better  learn  the  1^r^tj°n 
opinions  of  their  constituents.  June  llth  a  committee  was 
chosen  to  draught  a  Declaration  of  Independence;  its  members 
were  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger 
Sherman  and  Robert  Livingston.  The  Declaration  was  reported 
in  Congress  June  28th.  On  July  1st  the  great  debate  began;  the 
leaders  were  John  Adams  for  independence  and  John  Dickinson 
against.  Lee's  motion  was  carried  July  2d,  and  the  Declaration 
was  adopted  July  4th.  On  August  2d,  members  of  Congress 
signed  the  Declaration. 


Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia 

Painting  by  C.   W.   Peale,   1791 


pendence. 


158 


American  History 


Organiza 
tion  of 
State  gov 
ernments. 


In  the  Declaration  we  have  an  abstract  statement  of 
human  rights,  derived  by  its  author,  Thomas  Jefferson, 
from  the  great  English  philosophers,  Hobbes  and  Locke. 
The  list  of  grievances  that  follows  is  directed  solely  against 
the  King;  the  authority  of  Parliament  is  ignored,  except 
in  the  statement  that  the  King  "has  combined  with  others," 
etc.  The  attitude  of  the  Americans  during  the  contro 
versy  is  stated  in  the  final  paragraphs. 

Following  the  advice  of  Congress  several  State  govern 
ments  were  at  once  organized,  New  Hampshire,  Massa 
chusetts,  South  Carolina,  and  Virginia  taking  the  necessary 
steps  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted. 
Virginia  framed  a  permanent  constitution.  During  the 
war  all  of  the  States  established  new  governments,  Con 
necticut  and  Rhode  Island  using  their  colonial  charters  as 
constitutions. 


The 
Tories. 


About  one-third  of  the  entire  population  of  the  colonies  were 
Tories,  or  Loyalists.  In  the  middle  colonies  and  North  Carolina 
they  were  equal  in  number  with  the  patriots;  in  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  they  were  in  the  majority.  They  were  chiefly 
(1)  the  office  holders  and  those  who  hoped  for  official  appoint 
ments;  (2)  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  England;  (3)  the  large 
land  owners  and  the  substantial  business  men,  especially  those 
engaged  in  commerce;  and  (4)  the  professional  classes.  "They 
were  the  prosperous  and  contented  men,  the  men  without  a 
grievance."  The  Tories  argued  that  the  English  theory  of  rep 
resentation  (p.  147)  was  valid,  and  that  Parliament  would  not 
enact  laws  that  were  really  oppressive  if  the  colonies  would  admit 
the  principle  of  the  Declaratory  Act  of  1766.  Wherever  Tories  and 
patriots  were  nearly  equal,  between  them  there  was  virtually 
civil  war.  Where  the  Tories  were  in  the  minority  they  suffered 
severely.  Their  houses  were  searched,  their  property  destroyed 
or  confiscated,  and  they  were  sometimes  imprisoned.  Probably 
100,000  were  banished  or  died  for  their  cause  — a  cause  which,  it 
has  been  said,  was  "in  argument  not  a  weak  one,  in  sentiment 
not  a  base  one,  and  in  devotion  and  self-sacrifice  not  an  unheroic 


*  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  in  Am.  Hist.  Review,  I,  26. 
History  of  the  American  Revolution. 


See  also  his  Literary 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  150 

What  were  the  causes  that  led  the  Americans  to  declare  Funda- 

their  independence?     (1)  The  inherent  tendencies  of  the  J^sesV 

people  were  in  the  direction  of  self-government,  partly  on  secession 
account  of  their  environment,  which  gave  free  play  to  in- 


Eng- 


Room  in  Independence  Hall  in  which  the  Declaration  was  Signed 

dividual  initiative,  and  partly  because  they  were  the  de 
scendants  of  the  radicals  and  dissenters  who  constituted 
a  large  part  of  the  emigrants  from  Europe.  (2)  This 
tendency  had  been  fostered  by  a  century  and  more  of 
practical  freedom  from  outward  control.  (3)  The  pro 
posed  policy  of  imperial  control  conflicted  with  their  po 
litical  ideals  and  their  economic  interests.  The  appoint 
ment  of  bishops  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the  colonies 
had  also  been  considered  by  the  home  government.  The 
majority  of  the  colonists  were  not  adherents  of  this  church 
and  regarded  this  step  with  apprehension.  (4)  The  pol 
icy  of  the  British  Government  during  the  controversy  had 


160  American  History 

been  weak  and  vacillating.  (5)  George  III  had  domi 
nated  the  government  in  its  American  policy;  he  had  stub 
bornly  adhered  to  an  impractical  course,  first  from  love  of 
ruling  and  then  from  mere  vanity.  His  will  was  the  chief 
stumbling  block  in  the  way  of  reconciliation.  (6)  Back 
of  all  the  external  grievances  of  the  colonists  was  the  grow 
ing  consciousness  that  the  Americans  constituted  a  dis 
tinct  social  body  with  common  interests;  these  could  be 
preserved  intact,  not  by  conservative  yielding,  but  by 
further  advancement  into  the  fuller  liberty  of  economic 
and  political  independence. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  General  accounts.*     Higginson,  Larger  History,  chap.  9. 
Lodge,  English  Colonies,  chap.  23.     Goldwin  Smith,  The  United 
States,  60-89.     Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  43-68.     Sloane, 
French  War  and  Revolution,  116-178. 

2.  The    Navigation    Laws.     Coman,    Industrial    History    of 
United   States,   76-83;   87-92.     Hart,   Formation,   etc.,   44-50. 
Channing,  The  United  States,  31-33;  41-44.     Lecky,  The  Ameri 
can  Revolution,  41-48;  52-56.     Sloane,  French  War,  etc.,  118- 
120;  124-125.     Howard,  Preliminaries  of  the  Revolution,  47—67. 

3.  The  Writs  of  Assistance.     Samuel  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series, 
39-45  (new  ed.  130-145).     Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  No.  131. 
MacDonald,  Select  Charters,  258-261.    Otis's  speech.    American 
Orations,  I,  11-17. 

4.  The  Stamp  Act.    (a)  For  text,  see  MacDonald,  Select  Chart 
ers,  281-305.     Lamed,  Ready  Reference  (United  States,  1765). 
Am.  History  Leaflets,  No.  21.    (6)  Discussion.    Fiske,  Am.  Rev 
olution,   I,    14-18;  20-28.     (c)  Barre"s  Speech  in  Parliament. 
Bancroft,  III,  97-101.     Frothingham,  Rise  of  the  Republic,  175- 
176.     (d)  Resistance  in  the  colonies.     Bancroft,  III,  134-141. 
Frothingham,  17&-184.     Hart,  Contem.,  II,  No.  139.     (<?)  The 
Congress  and  Resolutions.    MacDonald,  313-315.    Hill,  Liberty 
Documents,  155-157.     Hart,  Contem.,  II,  No.  141.     Frothing 
ham,  184-189.    (/)  Franklin's  examination.    Hill,  Liberty  Docu 
ments,  158-159.    B.  Franklin,  Am.  St.  Series,  102-113  (new  ed.). 

*  In  these  books  will  be  found  excellent  brief  accounts  of  the  topics 
given  in  the  succeeding  headings. 


Causes  of  the  American  Revolution  161 

Hart,  Contem.,  II,  407-411.  Larned,  Ready  Reference  (U.  S., 
1765).  (g)  The  Repeal  and  Declaratory  Act.  Bancroft,  III, 
174-184.  Lecky,  85-97,  Hart,  Contem.,  "ll,  No.  142.  British 
Orations,  I,  98-119. 

5.  The    English    theory    of    representation.     Lecky,    78-79. 
S.Adams,   Am.    St.  Series,    78-89   (old  ed.).     Bancroft,    III, 
190-194.     British  Orations,  I,  159-162. 

6.  George  III  and  his  ministers.     Fiske,  Am.  Rev.,  I,  38-45. 
Hart,  Contem.,  II,  No.  130.     Gardiner,  Hist,  of  England,  765-769. 

7.  The  Townshend  Acts  and  opposition.      Lecky,   107-115. 
Fiske,  I,  28-32.     S.  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  98-108;    153-159 
(old  ed.),  89-97,  141-164  (new  ed.). 

8.  Samuel   Adams's   influence.     S.  Adams,  Am.  St.    Series, 
109-125  (old  ed.),  107-136  (new  ed.). 

9.  The     Massachusetts     circular    letter.     Fiske,     I,     46-50. 
Frothingham,  211-215. 

10.  The    Farmer's    Letters.     Hart,    Contem.,    II,  No.  149. 
Bancroft,  III,  264-265. 

11.  British  troops  in  Boston  and  the  "Massacre."     Fiske,  I, 
57-59;66-72.  Lecky,  119-132.  Bancroft, 368-378.  S.AdamsAm. 
St.  Series.  160-182.    John  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  34-40  (old.  ed.). 

12.  Committees    of    correspondence.     Fiske,    I,    77-82.     S. 
Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  196-206  (old  ed.),  176-195  (new  ed.). 
Bancroft,  III,  419-423;  436-438. 

13.  Boston  "Tea  Party."    S.  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  243- 
256  (old  ed.),  228-238  (new  ed.).     Hart,  Contem.,  I,  No.  152. 
Bancroft,  III,  447-458.  Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  68. 

14.  The  Retaliatory  Acts.     Lecky,  164-173,  Fiske,  I,  93-99. 
S.  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  264-273  (old  ed.),  260-270  (new  ed.). 

15.  The  First  Continental  Congress.     Frothingham,  359-364; 
370-377.     Lecky,   173-184.     Fiske,  I,  100-111.     John  Adams, 
Am.   St.  Series,   50-81.     Hart,  Contem.,  II,   No.   153.     Mac- 
Donald,  356-367. 

16.  The  Declaration   of  Independence.     Hart,  Contem.,  II, 
537-539.     Jefferson,  Am.  St.  Series,  26-40  (old  ed.).     Bancroft, 
IV,  423-425.     Frothingham,   412-417;   532-539.     Lecky,   244- 
246.  Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  18&-203.     Fiske,  I,  180-197. 

17.  The  Tories.     Lecky,  222-224;  255-260. 

18.  Make  a  list  of  events  that  show  the  growth  of  the  spirit  of 
union  among  the  colonists. 

19.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  10, 


CHAPTER  XI 


British  at 
tempt  in 
the  South, 
1776. 


Campaign 

around 

New 

York, 

1776. 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR,  1776-1783 

SIR  HENRY  CLINTON,  in  command  of  the  British  fleet, 
endeavored  to  gain  friends  for  the  British  cause  by  ap 
pearing  in  Southern  waters.  His  attack  on  Charleston, 
South  Carolina  (June,  1776),  had  the  opposite  effect. 
Fort  Moultrie  was  bravely  defended.  As  a  consequence, 
the  British  made  no  further  effort  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the 
South  for  more  than  two  years. 

They  next  struck  at  the  strategic  centre  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  viz.,  New  York  and  the  Hudson  River,  hoping  to 
cut  New  England  off  from  the  Middle  States.  Thus,  be 
fore  attacking  New  England  more  deliberately,  they  might 
gain  a  firm  base  west  of  the  Hudson,  and  many  reenforce- 
ments  from  the  Tories.  Washington,  anticipating  the  Brit 
ish  plans,  took  measures  to  defend  New  York  City  with 
an  army  of  17,000  men.  General  Howe,  with  an  army 
of  nearly  twice  that  number,  and  supported  by  Admiral 
Lord  Howe,  commanding  a  fleet,  appeared  in  the  harbor. 
General  Howe's  attempt  to  dislodge  Washington  from 
Brooklyn  Heights  was  successful  (battle  of  Long  Island, 
August,  1776).  The  latter  was  obliged  to  retreat.  This 
he  did  most  skilfully,  his  escape  being  made  possible  by 
Howe's  failure  to  send  the  fleet  to  East  River  and  by  his 
slowness  in  following  up  his  victory  after  the  battle. 

Washington,  followed  by  Howe's  army,  retreated  to  a 
strong  position  at  White  Plains,  and  Howe  did  not  dare 
make  a  serious  effort  to  dislodge  him.  Forts  Washington 
and  Lee,  guarding  the  Hudson,  fell  into  British  hands. 

162 


The  Revolutionary  War 


163 


At  the  former  the  Americans  lost  3,000  troops  and  quan-  There- 
tities  of  stores.     Washington  had  already  led   a  part  of 
his  army  across  the  Hudson  into  New  Jersey,  and  here   New 
the  British  endeavored  to  bring  about  a  decisive  battle. 


The  Campaign  of  1776 

This  would  have  been  disastrous  to  the  Americans,  and 
so  Washington's  only  policy  was  that  of  retreat.*  He 
marched  rapidly  westward,  through  Newark,  New  Bruns 
wick,  and  Princeton,  constantly  losing  men  by  sickness  and 

*  This  was  made  more  necessary  by  the  fact  that  General  Charles  Lee, 
stationed  East  of  the  Hudson  in  command  of  7,000  men  refused  to  obey 
Washington's  order  to  join  the  latter's  army. 


164 


American  History 


Discour 
agement 
in  the 
American 
Army. 


Victories 
at  Trenton 
and 
Princeton. 


Difficulties 
in  securing 
an  army. 


desertion,  until  he  had  no  more* than  3,000  under  his  eom- 
mand.  The  British  pursued,  and  gained  reinforcements 
from  the  deserters  of  Washington's  army  and  from  the 
Tories,  who  predominated  in  New  Jersey.  The  patriot 
militia  refused  to  turn  out  in  defence  of  the  country,  and 
the  people  of  New  Jersey  seemed  to  welcome  the  invaders. 
The  terms  of  enlistment  for  many  of  Washington's  troops 
were  expiring,  and  these  were  rapidly  going  home. 

Washington  now  crossed  the  Delaware  River.  Before  the 
entire  British  army  had  advanced  to  Trenton,  he  executed 
his  famous  manoeuvre  of  Christmas  night,  1776,  recrossing 
the  Delaware  and  capturing  1,000  Hessians  at  Trenton. 
Again,  a  few  days  later,  he  made  a  skilful  detour  about 
Cornwallis's  main  army  and  defeated  a  part  of  it  at  Prince 
ton.  He  then  retired  northward  into  the  mountains  at 
Morristown  Heights,  where  he  was  secure  from  attack. 
The  British  withdrew  to  New  York.  The  effect  of  the 
victories  at  Trenton  and  Princeton  was  remarkable. 
Hope  now  inspired  the  patriots.  Washington  had  shown 
himself  to  be  a  master  of  strategy.  The  people  of  New 
Jersey  were  disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  British  troops 
in  their  midst,  and  the  Middle  States  were  now  ready  to 
sustain  the  American  cause. 

The  American  troops  had  suffered  greatly  from  lack  of 
food  and  clothing  in  the  hard  December  campaign  de 
scribed  above,  and  this  fact  deterred  many  men  from  en 
listing.  Others  were  drawn  off  by  the  greater  attractions 
of  the  privateering  service.  Congress  had  authorized  at 
tacks  on  British  commerce  by  privateers,  and  to  those  en 
gaged  in  it,  this  practice  had  proved  to  be  exceedingly 
profitable.  A  third  cause  that  hindered  the  formation  of 
an  effective  Continental  Army  was  the  policy  of  the  States 
in  offering  larger  bounties  than  Congress  gave,  for  the  en 
listment  of  men  in  their  respective  militia  organizations.* 
Nothing  but  the  personal  influence  of  Washington  himself 

*  Many  of  these  militia  companies  disbanded  when  their  States  were  not 
endangered  by  the  enemy. 


The  Revolutionary^  War  165 

held  the  Continental  Army  together.  To  maintain  its 
numbers  recourse  was  had  to  more  bounties  and  heavy 
penalties  for  desertion. 

The  failure  to  feed,  clothe,  and  equip  the  army  properly,  Financial 
was  not  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the  country;  on  the  whole,  dimculties- 
the  people  were  prosperous.  But  Congress  could  not  ob 
tain  sufficient  funds.  Late  in  the  year  1776  Congress  be 
gan  the  policy  of  borrowing  money  upon  certificates  of 
indebtedness;  but  these  yielded  little  at  first.  In  the  same 
year  assistance  came  in  the  form  of  gifts  of  two  million 
livres  (about  $400,000)  from  France,  and  one  million  from 
Spain.  Later,  France  made  larger  gifts,  a  total  of  some 
$2,000,000.  This  money  was  used  in  the  purchase  of 
munitions  and  clothing  abroad,  with  the  connivance  of  the 
French  Government.*  Congress  also  established  a  lottery 
as  a  source  of  revenue;  but  this  yielded  small  returns. 

After  the  failure  of  the  attack  upon  Canada  of  1775-1776  British  at- 
(p.  157),  it  was  necessary  for  the  Americans  to  defend 
the  line  of  Lake  Champlain  and  the  upper  Hudson  1777. 
from  British  attacks  directed  from  Canada.  The  year 
1777  saw  a  renewed  effort  on  the  part  of  the  British  to 
capture  those  water-ways  and  thus  to  divide  the  States. 
General  Burgoyne  advanced  southward  from  Canada,  his 
destination  being  Albany.  General  St.  Leger  ascended  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  Lake  Ontario  to  Oswego,  and  then 
planned  an  advance  by  the  Mohawk  valley  to  meet  Bur 
goyne.  General  Howe  was  to  have  ascended  the  Hudson 
to  join  the  other  armies  at  Albany.  But  Howe's  superiors  , 
in  England  neglected  to  sign  and  forward  to  him  the  pre 
cise  orders  for  this  movement  until  he  had  left  New  York 
upon  a  campaign  in  the  opposite  direction.  Consequently, 
that  part  of  the  plan  failed  of  execution. 

General  Burgoyne  ascended  the  Sorel  (or  Richelieu)  River 
and  Lake  Champlain  with  a  fine  army  of  8,000  men,  well 

*  At  the  same  time,  American  privateers  were  allowed  to  use  French 
ports,  where  they  sold  their  captures.  Many  men  and  officers  enlisted 
in  the  American  service  from  France. 


ROUTE  OF  BORGOYNE 
ROUTE  OF  ST.tEGER 
ROUTE  OF  HOWE 


mt< 


166 


Campaigns  of  1777 


The  Revolutionary  War  167 

supported  by  Canadians  and  Indians.  He  took  Ticonderoga,   Burgoyne's 
and  his  march  to  Fort  Edward  was  comparatively  easy;  but  camPai^n- 
beyond  this  the  American  army  obstructed  the  road  in 
every  way  possible.     At  the  same  time  the  surrounding 
country  was  cleared  of  provisions  upon  which  the  British 
might  depend.     Burgoyne's  supplies  had  to  be  carried  from 
Canada ;  his  army  was  constantly  being  diminished  by  the 
necessity  of  garrisoning  points  left  in  his  rear;  about  him 
the    inhabitants   were   rising   to    support   the   American 
cause. 

The  advance  of  St.  Leger  was  successful  as  far  as  Fort  Stan- 
wix  on  the  head-waters  of  the  Mohawk  River.  To  this  fort  he 
laid  siege.  The  Americans  under  Herkimer  attacked  the  be 
siegers;  later,  reinforcements  under  Benedict  Arnold  drove  St. 
Leger 's  army  precipitately  from  the  fort;  and  so  this  part  of  the 
British  plan  failed  (August,  1777). 

While  at  Fort  Edward,  Burgoyne  sent  a  force  into  Vermont, 
hoping  that  British  sympathisers  might  be  aroused  to  his  assist 
ance  and  supplies  obtained.  This  expedition  was  utterly  de 
feated  at  Bennington  (August)  by  General  Stark. 

Burgoyne  now  (September  13, 1777)  advanced  across  the  His  defeat 
Hudson  and  marched  southward.  A  series  of  manoeuvres 
and  battles  in  the  vicinity  of  Saratoga  occupied  about  a 
month.  The  American  force,  now  several  times  larger  than 
the  British,  cut  off  the  latter' s  supplies,  almost  completely 
surrounded  it,  and  finally  compelled  its  surrender  (October). 
The  credit  for  the  defeat  of  Burgoyne  belongs  to  General 
Schuyler,  who,  in  the  course  of  the  campaign,  was  super 
seded  by  General  Gates,  and  to  Bendict  Arnold.  Kos- 
ciusko,  the  Polish  patriot,  also  assisted  in  these  operations. 

While  Burgoyne's  campaign  was  in  progress,  General   Howe's 
Howe  had  placed  his  troops  aboard  ships  (July,  1777),  and  ™™J^gn 
had  proceeded  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  landing  at  its  head  a  Phiiadei- 
month   later.     Washington   hastened   to   the   defence   of  phia>  1777> 
Philadelphia,  and  met  the  British  force  at  Brandywine 
creek.     Here  his  army  was  defeated,  and  he  withdrew  to 
Philadelphia.     The    British    followed    and    Washington 
again  retreated.     On  October  4,  the  two  armies  met  at 


168 


American  History 


A  frame  of 
govern 
ment  pro 
posed. 


The  fail 
ures  of 
Congress. 


Germantown,  and  the  Americans  were  again  defeated. 
The  campaign  was  now  over,  the  British  comfortably  oc 
cupying  Philadelphia,  while  the  Americans  encamped  at 
Valley  Forge,  a  few  miles  distant.  The  capture  of  Phila 
delphia  worked  less  injury  to  the  American  cause  than  had 
been  expected.  Congress  withdrew  to  Lancaster,  and 
later  to  York,  Pennsylvania. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  question  of  independence 
w^as  under  consideration  (June,  1776)  the  Continental 
Congress  appointed  a  committee  to  draw  up  a  plan  of 
union.  The  "Articles  of  Confederation,"  submitted  by 
the  committee  were  adopted  by  Congress  in  1777.  This 
was  an  effort  -to  place  the  central  government  upon  a  firm 
constitutional  basis,  to  determine  its  powers  and  its  re 
lations  to  the  States.  Its  ratification  by  the  States  would 
mean  a  gain  in  efficiency  for  the  National  Government; 
but  this  action  was  postponed  for  various  reasons  and  the 
weak  Congress  continued  its  control  until  1781. 

The  sufferings  of  the  army  at  Valley  Forge  are  evidence  of  the 
complete  failure  of  the  system  under  which  Congress  was  endeav 
oring  to  manage  the  commissary  department.  Through  mis 
management  and  the  inefficiency  of  officers,  supplies  intended 
for  the  army  never  reached  it.  The  membership  of  Congress 
had  somewhat  deteriorated  in  character;  strong  men  were  at 
tracted  to  service  in  the  States,  and  delegates  to  Congress  were 
constantly  changing.  That  body  had  no  basis  for  its  authority 
but  the  acquiescence"  of  the  States,  and  the  latter  acted  inde 
pendently  in  following  or  rejecting  the  recommendations  of  Con 
gress.  Again,  Congress  was  not  effectively  organized,  and  it  was 
endeavoring  to  handle  a  mass  of  details  far  beyond  its  power  to 
control.  As  another  hindrance  to  its  efficiency,  certain  members 
of  Congress  conspired,  with  bad  motives,  against  Washington. 

During  the  campaign  last  described  Washington's  army  was 
joined  by  Lafayette  and  De  Kalb  from  France  and  Baron 
Steuben  "  an  accomplished  Prussian  officer,  trained  in  the  school 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  with  a  record  of  distinguished  service 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War." 

After  the  decisive  American  victory  at  Saratoga  the 
French  Government  openly  contracted  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  United  States  (February,  1778).  France  was  to 


The  Revolutionary  War 


169 


aid  the  Americans  in  the  war,  while  the  latter  agreed  not  The  treaty 
to  make  a  treaty  of  peace,  except  on  the  basis  of  indepen-  p^nce, 
dence.    Commissioners  were  sent  to  America  by  George  III   1778. 
offering  guarantees  of  all  the  principles  in  dispute,  except 
independence,  but  their  advances  were  rejected. 

Great  credit  for  the  French  treaty  belongs  to  Benjamin 
Franklin,  who,  "under 
the  appearance  of  ex 
treme  simplicity  con 
cealed  the  astuteness 
of  the  most  accom 
plished  diplomatist." 
The  reasons  for  which 
France  entered  the  al 
liance  may  be  sum 
marized  as  follows:  (1) 
Revenge  for  past  de 
feats,  especially  that  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War, 
when  the  American 
possessions  were  lost. 
(2)  Desire  to  keep  the 
balance  of  power  in 
Europe,  by  striking  a 
blow  at  the  colonial 
and  maritime  suprem 
acy  of  England.  (3) 
Great  enthusiasm  over 
the  American  cause 
had  been  aroused 
among  the  French  peo 
ple.  This  was  shared 
by  many  persons  who 
were  influential  at 

court;  among  these  were  the  young  nobility,  some  army  officers 
and  philosophers,  and  the  Queen,  Marie  Antoinette. 

The  threatened  approach  of  a  French  fleet  rendered  the  The  evacu- 
continuance  of  the  British  army  in  Philadelphia  unwise;   phSadei- 
consequently,  in  June,  1778,  General  Clinton  *  evacuated  Phia.  1778. 

*  General  Howe  had  returned  to  England,  where  he,  like  General 
Burgoyne,  was  busily  engaged  in  explaining  the  failure  of  the  British 
plans  for  1777. 


Lafayette 

From  a  portrait  painted  byC.  W.  Peale,  in  1780,  for  Washing 
ton.     Now  owned  by  General  G.  W.  C.  Lee,  Lexington,  Va. 


170 


American  History 


The  moun 
tain  com 
munities 
of  the 
South. 


The 
earliest 
settle 
ments  be 
yond  the 
mountains. 


that  city  and  set  out  for  New  York.  Washington  attacked 
the  British  army  at  Monmouth,  New  Jersey,  but  the  diso 
bedience  of  General  Charles  Lee,  who  ordered  a  retreat, 
instead  of  a  sharp  attack,  rendered  the  results  of  this  battle 
very  unsatisfactory.  The  British  army,  now  in  New 
York,  attempted  no  further  general  operations  during 
the  war  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.  Washington 
held  his  army  in  the  Hudson  River  posts,  watching  the 
British. 

An  important  phase  of  the  Revolutionary  War  cannot  be 
understood  until  we  trace  further  the  progress  of  settle 
ment  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  across 
to  the  prairies  beyond.  Settlers  from  the  Virginia  valleys 
(p.  120),  advancing  southward,  made  homes  upon  the 
Watauga  River  (1769),  and  here  came  many  discontented 
North  Carolinians.  Among  these  were  James  Robertson 
and  John  Sevier,  the  former  typical  of  the  Scotch-Irish 
Presbyterians  who  formed  so  large  an  element  of  the 
backwoods  population,  and  the  latter  of  Huguenot 
descent.  Under  their  leadership,  the  community  on  the 
Watauga  adopted  a  constitution  and  maintained  an  in 
dependent  government  for  several  years  (1772-1777). 
Later,  Watauga  became  a  county  of  North  Carolina. 
This  was  "the  first  instance  of  a  government  of  the 
people, .  by  the  people,  under  a  written  compact,  beyond 
the  mountains,  and  was  established  by  men  of  American 
birth."* 

The  settlements  of  the  Carolina  valleys  were  outposts 
from  which  proceeded  the  first  great  movement  beyond  the 
mountains.  This  movement  took  place  south  of  the  Ohio, 
rather  than  north  of  it  for  several  reasons.  (1)  By  the 
treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix,  made  in  1768,  between  agents  of 
several  colonies  and  the  Iroquois  Indians,  the  latter  ceded 
their  claims  to  lands  south  of  the  Ohio  River.  (2)  The 
region  now  known  as  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  was  not 
the  permanent  seat  of  Indian  tribes.  (3)  Indian  tribes 
*  Winsor,  The  Westward  Movement,  80. 


The  Revolutionary  War 


171 


Daniel 
Boone. 


Transyl 
vania  and 
Kentucky. 


living  north  of  the  Ohio  River  were  defeated  in  Lord 
Dunmore's  war  (1774). 

In  the  vanguard  of  the  westward  movement  was  Daniel  Boone. 
His  father  was  a  Pennsylvania  frontiersman  who  had  followed  the 
mountain  troughs  southward  to  the  Yadkin  River  in  North  Caro 
lina.  Boone's  early  exploration  of  Kentucky  opened  the  route 
through  Cumberland  Gap,  an  Indian  and  buffalo  trail.  He  led 

a  body  of  settlers  from 
Watauga  into  Kentucky 
and  founded  Boonesboro 
(1775). 

The  fortunate  cir 
cumstances  recounted 
above  rendered  the 
Kentucky  settlements 
comparatively  im 
mune  from  Indian 
attacks,  and  their 
growth  was  rapid. 
Under  the  leadership 
of  Richard  Henderson, 
delegates  were  sent 
from  the  various  towns 
to  a  convention  (1775) 
which  organized  the 
Colonel  Daniel  Boone  government  of  Tran- 

^•^Z^^^rS?*™"*    sylvania   between  the 

Ohio  and  Cumberland 

rivers.  This  independent  government  asked  Congress  for 
admission  to  the  Union ;  but  the  sentiment  of  Virginia  was 
hostile  to  such  action  and,  instead,  Kentucky  was  made  a 
county  of  that  State  in  1776. 

Later,  in    1780,  Robertson   led  Watauga   and    North  Tennessee. 
Carolina  settlers  to  central  Tennessee,  where  Nashville 
was  founded  on  the  Cumberland  River. 

There  were  three  main  routes  of  travel  to  these  western 
settlements.  (1)  The  Ohio  River  was  reached  at  Pitts- 
burg  by  routes  through  Pennsylvania  or  by  way  of  the 


172 


American  History 


Routes  of 
westward 
travel. 


Potomac  and  Monongahela  rivers.*  Thence  the  trip  to 
Kentucky  was  easy,  but  somewhat  dangerous  on  account 
of  the  hostile  northern  Indians.!  (2)  From  the  Virginia 


The  West  During  the  Revolution 

valleys  settlers  followed  the  New  and   Greenbrier  rivers 
to  the  great  Kanawha,  a  branch  of  the  Ohio.     (3)  The 

*  From  Philadelphia  travellers  went  by  way  of  Lancaster  and  Bedford 
to  Pittsburg.  From  Baltimore  the  route  was  up  the  Potomac  to  Cumber 
land,  Maryland;  thence  either  to  Wheeling,  or  to  Pittsburg,  following 
Braddock's  trail. 

t  The  canoe,  pirogue,  batteau,  and  flat  boat  were  the  river  craft  com 
monly  used.  The  pirogue  was  hollowed  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  large  tree 
and  pushed  by  oars  or  setting  poles.  The  barge  was  a  square  box-like 
construction  with  a  raised  deck.  It  was  frequently  large  enough  to  carry 
a  number  of  families  with  their  possessions,  and  required  several  men 
to  "pole"  it  up  stream.  In  1780,  three  hundred  of  these  large  boats 
arrived  at  the  falls  of  the  Ohio  River,  where  Louisville  was  founded.  The 
town  that  year  contained  six  hundred  inhabitants. 


The  Revolutionary  War  173 

greatest  number  of  frontiersmen  moved  by  the  Wilderness 
Road  (see  map,  p.  172),  which  afforded,  even  for  those  from 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  the  easiest  and  best  pro 
tected  path  to  the  West. 

Life  among  the  Western  settlers  was  simple  and  pictur 
esque.  All  distinctions  of  rank  were  broken  down,  and 
here  grew  the  first  true  American  democracy. 

The  British  in  Detroit  encouraged  Indian  attacks  upon  Expedition 
the  Kentucky  settlements.     This  danger  was  met  by  the  Rogers^6 
bold  scheme  of  George  Rogers  Clark,  a  frontier  surveyor  Clark. 
and  scout,  to  conquer  all  the  British  posts  of  the  Northwest. 
Acting  under  the  authority  and  with  the  assistance  of 
Governor  Patrick  Henry,  of  Virginia,  he  captured  suc 
cessively  Kaskaskia,  Cahokia,  and  Vincennes  (1778-1779). 
This  bold  and  dramatic  action  strengthened  the  claim  of 
Virginia  to  this  western  territory,  and  was  an  important 
fact  in  the  determination  of  our  western  boundary  at  the 
close  of  the  war. 

After    the    evacuation    of    Philadelphia,    General    Benedict    Benedict 
Arnold  was  put  in  command  of  the  American  troops  in  that  city.    Arnol(i- 
Here  he  became  involved  in  quarrels  with  the  city  authorities. 
Arnold  was  convicted,  after  a  court-martial  trial,  of  a  few  minor 
offences,   and  was  sentenced  to  be  censured  by  Washington. 
This  episode,   coupled  with  wrongs  which  he  had  previously 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  Congress,  embittered  Arnold's  spirit,  and 
he  resolved   upon  a  treasonable    plot — the  surrender  of  West 
Point.*     The  detection  of  this  plot  is  a  familiar  story.     This  in 
cident  added  to  the  depression  of  the  patriots  at  this  time  (1780). 

Financially,  the  country  was  in  desperate  straits.     There  Finances 
were  three  principal  sources  of  revenue:  (1)  The  issuance  united 
of  paper  money,  begun  in  1775  (see  p.  155),  was  con-  states- 
tinued  as  follows:  1776,  $19,000,000;  1777,  $13,000,000; 
1778,  $63,000,000;  1779,  $140,000,000.     This  amount  of 
money  was  greatly  in  excess  of  the  demand  for  business 
purposes  among  a  population  of  three  million  people  where 
commerce  was  not  fully  developed.     Depreciation  resulted 

*  The  defences  of  this  important  post  guarding  a  narrow  passage  in  the 
Hudson  River  were  constructed  under  the  supervision  of  Kosciusko. 


174 


American  History 


Paper 
money 
issued  by 
Congress. 


Taxes 
levied 
upon  the 
States. 


North  Carolina  Currency 


inevitably.  The  following  figures  state  the  value  of  one 
dollar  of  paper  money  in  terms  of  specie  in  November  of 
each  year:  1776,  $.66;  1777,  $.20;  1778,  $.10;  1779, 
$.02.  In  subsequent  years  dollar  bills  were  \vorth  but 
one  cent,  and  later,  absolutely  nothing.*  In  1780  and 
later,  Congress  redeemed  some  of  this  money  at  the  ratio 

of  40  to  1,  but  much 
of  it  was  lost  and 
destroyed.  The  de 
preciation  and  prac 
tical  repudiation  of 
this  money  placed  a 
heavy  burden  upon 
those  who  originally 
received  it  at  face 
value.  Unsuccessful 
attempts  \vere  made 
to  check  depreciation 
by  laws  fixing  prices  and  by  legal -tender  enactments. 
(2)  Congress  made  requisitions  upon  the  States  for 
money  with  which  to  pay  war  expenses.  In  the  two  years  fol 
lowing  November,  1777,  they  paid  into  the  treasury  about 
$55,000,000,  in  response  to  requisitions  for  $95,000,000. 
And  this  amount  was  paid  in  Continental  currency  worth  at 
the timeonly  $1,800,000  in  specie.  When,  in  1780  and  1781, 
Congress  made  requisitions  for  $10,000,000  of  specie,  it  re 
ceived  from  the  States  about  $1,500,000.  The  States  were 
at  this  time  burdened  with  the  same  task  of  raising  revenue 
for  the  support  of  their  local  militias.  They  had  issued  great 
amounts  of  paper  money  early  in  the  war,  and  they  had  bor 
rowed  much  money.  The  ultimate  source  of  all  revenue, 
taxation,  was  difficult  to  put  into  operation  among  a  peo 
ple  hitherto  unused  to  it  except  in  a  mild  form,  where  popu 
lation  was  sparse,  and  in  regions  occupied  by  British  troops. 

*  Hence  the  phrase  "not  worth  a  continental."  Paper  money  was 
sometimes  used  for  wall  paper.  Dewey,  Financial  History  of  United 
States,  41. 


The  Revolutionary  War 


175 


(3)  Congress  endeavored  to  raise  money  by  borrowing. 
The  specie  value  of.  $63,000,000  borrowed  at  home  during 
the  later  years  of  the  war  was  only  $7,600,000.  The  fol- 


John  Paul  Jones 

From  the  original  bust  by  Houdon  in  the  possession  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  Philadelphia 

lowing  amounts  were  borrowed  from  foreign  governments : 
France,  $6,350,000;*  Spain,  $174,000;  Holland,  $1,300,000. 

*  It  is  estimated  that  France  spent  an  equal  amount  upon  her  army 
and  navy  sent  in  aid  of  the  American  cause. 


176 


American  History 


The  war 
on  the 
ocean. 


John  Paul 
Jones. 


British 
victories 
in  the 
South. 


A  part  of  these  loans  was  in  specie,  and  this  was  used  to 
pay  interest  upon  the  debt  contracted  at  home  and  to 
purchase  supplies  abroad. 

No  inconsiderable  part  of  the  Revolutionary  War  was 
fought  on  the  ocean.  A  great  many  cruisers  were  commis 
sioned  by  State  and  National  authority,  and  these,  together 
with  hundreds  of  privateers,  brought  havoc  to  English  com 
merce.  While  the  United  States  had  no  naval  force  fit  to 
cope  with  the  British  navy,  some  decisive  victories  were  won. 

Captain  John  Paul  Jones,  after  commanding  various  ships  in 
American  waters,  conceived  the  greater  project  of  using  a  fleet 
to  attack  England  in  her  own  waters,  where  her  coasts  were  de 
fenceless,  and  where  rich  fleets  might  be  surprised.  His  primary 
object  was  not  enrichment  through  prize  money,  but  the  injury 
of  his  opponent  and  the  attraction  of  British  warships  from  Ameri 
can  waters  for  home  defence.  His  fleet  was  fitted  out  in  France 
and  cruised  around  west  of  the  British  Isles  into  the  North  Sea. 
At  Flamborough  Head  (September,  1779),  Jones,  with  three 
ships,  attacked  and  defeated  two  English  warships  convoying 
a  large  fleet  of  merchantmen.  This  victory  gained  for  our 
country  the  respect  of  foreign  governments. 

In  1778,  the  British  entered  upon  a  plan  for  the  con 
quest  of  the  Southern  States,  beginning  with  the  weakest, 
Georgia.  Savannah  was  taken  (December),  and  shortly 
thereafter  the  English  Government  was  recognized  as 
supreme  in  that  State.  In  May,  1780,  General  Lincoln 
who  commanded  the  American  forces  in  the  South,  sur 
rendered  the  city  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  Elsewhere 
in  that  State  there  was  at  first  slight  resistance.  When  an 
American  army  under  Gates,  faced  the  invaders  at  Cam- 
den,  it  was  badly  defeated,  large  bodies  of  the  militia  fleeing 
without  giving  fight.*  As  a  result,  the  American  army  was 
practically  dispersed,  and  the  British  ruled  South  Carolina. 

At  this  point  the  British  plan  received  a  check.  Partisan 
leaders,  chief  among  whom  were  Marion  and  Sumter, 
gathered  their  bands  on  the  western  frontier,  and  an  army 
under  General  Greene,  was  stationed  to  resist  the  north- 

*  Here  DeKalb  was  killed,  while  Pulaski,  a  Polish  patriot,  met  death  in 
an  earlier  engagement  at  Charleston. 


The  Revolutionary  War 


177 


frontiers 
men. 


ward  advance  of  General  Cornwallis.     W^hen  the  latter  American 
was  ready  to  invade  North  Carolina,  he  sent  a  force  (com-  ^on*^3 
posed  largely  of  Tories)   under  Ferguson  to  harass  the 
frontier.     But  the  backwoodsmen  of  the  mountain  settle 
ments  completely  defeated  Ferguson  at  King's  Mountain, 
October,  1780.     Again,  Morgan,  commanding  the  western 
wing  of  the  Ameri-    _ 
can  forces,  met  a 
part  of  the  British 
army  underTarle- 
ton  at  C  o  w  p  e  n  s 
(January,    1781), 
and     completely 
defeated  it. 

These  battles 
deprived  the  Brit 
ish  of  their  most 
valuable  contin 
gents,  the  scouts 
and  light  infantry. 
Greene  now  fell 
back  into  North 
Carolina,  draw 
ing  Cornwallis  in 
pursuit  farther  from  his  base  into  a  most  difficult  country. 
When  the  American  army  finally  faced  the  enemy  at  Guil- 
ford  Court  House  (March,  1781),  each  side  suffered  con 
siderable  damage;  but  the  British  could  advance  no  far 
ther,  and  withdrew  to  Wilmington.  Greene  then  returned 
to  South  Carolina,  where  he  recovered  all  the  strongholds 
except  Charleston. 

From  Wilmington  Cornwallis  transferred  his  army  to  The  cam- 
Virginia,  thus  giving  aid  to  the  forces  that,  under  Benedict  paign  m 
Arnold,  had  for  some  time  harassed  that  State.    The  Amer 
ican  troops  in  Virginia,  small  in  number,  were  commanded 
by  Lafayette,  then  but  twenty-three  years  of  age.     He 
successfully  avoided  Cornwallis  when  the  latter  invaded 


— .—  Route  of 

Oen.  Cornwallis 


The  War  in  the  Southern  States 


Virginia. 


178 


American  History 


The  siege 
and  sur 
render  of 
Yorktown, 
1781. 


Virginia.  Failing  to  arouse  Tory  reinforcements  and  fear 
ing  to  remain  away  from  the  coast,  the  British  general  soon 
withdrew  to  the  York  peninsula  and  asked  for  reenforce- 
ments  from  New  York.  At  New  York,  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
was  expecting  an  attack  by  Washington.  The  latter  was 
awaiting  the  aid  of  a  powerful  French  fleet,  then  in  the 

West  Indies,  before  de 
termining  where  the 
blow  should  fall.  On 
August  14th,  news 
reached  Washington 
that  the  French  fleet  un 
der  De  Grasse  had 
started  for  Chesapeake 
Bay.  This  determined 
him  at  once  upon  a  bold 
movement.  Uniting 
with  his  2,000  American 
troops  a  French  force 
of  4,000,  under  Roch- 
ambeau,  he  moved  into 
New  Jersey,  leaving  a 
force  to  guard  West 
Point.  Most  skilfully  Washington  now  so  manoeuvred  as 
to  deceive  the  British  into  thinking  that  he  contemplated 
an  attack  upon  New  York.  Instead,  his  troops  marched 
with  great  rapidity  across  New  Jersey,  through  Philadel 
phia,  to  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay. 

When  Clinton  discovered  the  true  state  of  affairs  he  des 
patched  a  fleet  to  attack  De  Grasse  in  Hampton  Roads ;  but 
it  was  worsted  and  returned  to  New  York.  Nothing  now 
remained  but  to  transport  Washington's  army  down  Chesa 
peake  Bay  and  up  the  James  River,  where,  with  another 
force  brought  by  the  French  fleet,  they  joined  Lafayette's 
army.  The  investment  of  Yorktown  from  the  land  and 
the  water  sides  was  now  complete.  From  September,  28th 
to  October  17th,  Cornwallis  withstood  the  siege  and 


Map  Showing  the  Position  of  the  French 
and  American  Troops  at  Yorktown 


The  Revolutionary  War  179 

the  repeated  assaults  of  the  allied  forces;  he  then  sur 
rendered. 

Many  considerations,  besides  British  defeats  in  America,  The  end  of 
determined  that  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  should  end  tnewar- 
the  war.  During  the  few  preceding  years  England  had 
aroused  the  enmity  of  nearly  every  European  power. 
Arrayed  against  her  in  open  war  were  France,  Spain, 
and  Holland.  Thus  it  became  increasingly  difficult  to 
maintain  the  army  in  America.  At  home  King  George 
was  no  longer  able  to  stem  the  tide  of  opposition  that 
had  condemned  the  war  from  the  beginning.  The  mass 
of  common  people,  as  they  came  to  understand  the  King's 
methods  of  government,  turned  against  him  with  great 
bitterness.  A  majority  of  them  now  regarded  the  war 
as  "a  civil  war  in  which  English  liberty  was  at  stake." 
Even  Lord  North's  ministry  had  acted,  in  obedience  to  the 
King,  "under  compulsion  and  against  their  consciences." 
In  March,  1782,  George  finally  gave  in,  Lord  North  re 
signed,  and  the  government  was  turned  over  to  his  enemies. 
The  new  ministry  ordered  a  cessation  of  hostilities  in 
America. 

The  commissioners  now  sent  to  Paris  to  agree  upon  Negotia- 
terms  of  peace  were  Franklin,  Jay,  and  John  Adams.* 
In  the  treaty  with  France  (1778),  the  United  States  had 
agreed  not  to  make  a  separate  treaty  with  England.  The 
commissioners  practically  ignored  this  pledge,  and  the  in 
structions  from  Congress  to  the  same  effect,  by  secretly 
coming  to  an  agreement  with  the  English  Government. 
But  the  treaty  was  not  signed  until  the  European  war 
terminated  and  the  nations  involved  agreed  upon  terms 
of  peace  (1783). 

In  acting  as  they  did  the  American  commissioners  were  in 
spired  by  fear  that  the  French  minister,  Vergennes,  would  support 
the  desire  of  Spain  (the  ally  of  France)  that  the  United  States 
should  be  restricted  to  the  Alleghany  Mountains  on  the  west. 

*  Jefferson  and  Laurens  were  also  appointed,  but  took  no  part  in  the 
negotiations. 


180  American  History 

The  boundaries  agreed  upon  were  exceedingly  liberal  to  the 
United  States,  but  they  were  indefinite  at  two  points:  i.  e.,  the  line 
between  Canada  and  New  England,  and  that  beyond  Lake 
Superior.  These  had  to  be  adjusted  by  subsequent  treaties. 

The  terms  The  Western  boundary  followed  the  Mississippi  River 
treaty  to  31°  latitude-  Thence  the  line  ran  eastward  to  the  At- 
1783. '  lantic.  The  United  States  agreed  to  recommend  to  the 
States  that  they  pass  laws  favorable  to  the  Tories  whose 
property  had  been  confiscated;  also,  it  was  agreed  that 
no  obstacles  should  be  placed  by  law  in  the  way  of  British 
creditors  collecting  debts  due  in  America.  These  two  pro 
visions  satisfied  British  pride,  but  of  course,  Congress  could 
not  compel  the  States  to  take  any  action  to  which  they  were 
opposed.  There  was  ground  for  future  controversy  in 
these  subjects .  The  Americans  were  guaranteed  the 
right  to  enjoy  the  privilege  of  fishing  on  the  coast  of  New 
foundland. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  The  defence  of  Charleston  (1776)  is  described  in  Fiske, 
American  Revolution,  I,  198-200.    "Bancroft,  IV,  398-411. 

2.  Conditions  in  the  American  army.     Lecky,  American  Revo 
lution,  253-257.    Van  Tyne,  the  American  Revolution,  118-129. 

3.  The    Battle   of   Long    Island   and   Washington's   retreat. 
Fiske,  I,  204-212.     Sloane,  French  War  and  Revolution,  238- 
243.     Bancroft,  IV,  27-38.     Lamed,  History  for  Ready  Refer 
ence,  United  States,  August,  1776.     For  a  recent  critical  view  see 
American  Historical  Review,  I,  650-670. 

4.  Explain  the  capture  of  Forts  Washington  and  Lee.     Fiske, 
I,  21&-224. 

5.  Washington's  retreat;  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton. 
Larned,  September-November,  1776.     Fiske,  I,  224-238.  Sloane, 
243-245;  251-258. 

6.  Why  were  laws  fixing  prices  unsuccessful,  and  what  evils  fol 
lowed  these  and  the  legal  tender  laws?     Lecky,  290-294. 

7.  Who  were  Silas  Deane  and  Beaumarchais,  and  how  did  they 
aid  the  American  cause?     Larned,  A.  D.,  1776-1778. 

8.  Hart,  Contemporaries,  II.     (a)  Nathan  Hale  and  his  fate, 
No.  171,  (see  also  Bancroft,  IV,  48-49).   (b)  How  the  work  of  re- 


The  Revolutionary  War  181 

cruiting  was  done,  No.  170.  (c)  Lafayette  and  his  enlistment, 
Xo.  172.  (d)  Washington's  complaints  against  the  militia,  No. 
174.  (e)  Life  in  the  American  Army,  Nos.  175,  179,  195. 

9.  Paper   money   and   its   depreciation.     Was   it   necessary? 
Dewey,  Financial  History  of  U.  S.,  39-43.     Sloane,  283-286. 

10.  Conditions  at  Valley  Forge.     Washington's  letter  to  Con 
gress.     Larned,  January-December,   1777.     Fiske,  II,  29. 

11.  Steuben's  work  in  disciplining  the  American  Army.     Fiske, 
II,  50-56. 

12.  The  Conway  cabal  and  General  Gates,  Fiske,  II,  32-46. 

13.  The  story  of  Lafayette's  coming  to  America  is  told  in  his 
memoirs,  Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  97,  1-9. 

14:  Letters  that  passed  between  Washington  and  Lafayette, 
Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  98,  1-iO. 

15.  Reasons  why  the  French  made  the  treaty  of  1778.     Fiske, 
I,  238-242.     Van  Tyne,  The  American  Revolution,  203-226. 

16.  Indians   and   Tories    in    New   York   and    Pennsylvania. 
Fiske,  II,  82-94.     Larned,  June-November,  1778;  July,  1778. 

17.  Arnold's  treason  and  the  justice  of  Andre's  execution. 
Lecky,  403-419.     Fiske,  II,  206-238.    Sloane,  300-301 ;  325-  327. 

18.  George  Rogers  Clark  and  his  expedition.     Fiske,  II,  103- 
109.     Larned,  A.  D.,  1778-1779. 

19.  Topics  in  Fiske,  11.     (a)  Chatham's  last  speech  and  his 
death,  11-22.     (b)  Charles  Lee  and  his  character,  59-72.     (-c) 
John  Paul  Jones  and  his  victory,   116-130.     (d)  Marion  and 
Sumter,    182-185.     (e)  King's    Mountain    and  Cowpens,  244- 
255.     Cornwallis  in  Virginia  and  the  surrender  of  Yorktown, 
268-284.     (/)  Results  of  Yorktown,  285-290. 

20.  Lodge,  Story  of  the  American  Revolution  (illustrated),  in 
Scribner's  Magazine,  Vols.  23  and  24. 

21.  On  Boone,  see  Thwaites,  Daniel  Boone. 

22.  The  Western  Settlements.     Howard,  Preliminaries  of  the 
Revolution,  334-341. 

23.  WThat  reasons  can  you  state  explaining  why  the  Americans 
won  in  the  Revolution  ? 

24.  Why  should  the  Spanish  wish  to  restrict  the  limits  of  the 
United  States  on  the  West? 

25.  The  treaty  of  1783.     Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  95- 
101.     Channing,  the  United  States,  102-106.     Sloane,  French 
\Var  and  Revolution,  355-369.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  No. 
216. 


182 


American  History 


26.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  11. 

27.  Historical  Novels.  Cooper,  The  Spy;  The  Pilot.  Churchill, 
Richard  Carvel.     Ford,  Janice  Meredith.     Thompson,  Alice  of 
Old  Vincennes.     Mitchell,  Hugh  Wynne. 


The  old  Potts  House  at  Valley  Forge,  used  by  Washiagton  as  Head 
quarters. 

Now  a  Revolutionary  Museum 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  CONFEDERATION,  1781-1789 

THE  problems  of  self-government  were  no  simpler  than  Forming 
were  those  connected  with  the  winning  of  independence,  ^ides  of 
To  the  masses  of  the  people,  Congress  seemed  another  Confeder- 
government,  external  to  their  local  governments,  assuming 
authority  similar  to  that  which  the  King  had  striven  to 
enforce.  As  they  had  previously  rebelled  against  the  re 
strictions  of  the  English  Government,  so  now  they  objected 
to  the  exercise  of  authority  by  Congress.  It  became  evi 
dent,  to  some  of  the  leaders,  that  if  the  elements  of  union 
were  to  be  strengthened  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  a 
government  more  effective  than  this  Revolutionary  Assem 
bly.  November  17,  1777,  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
were  finally  adopted  by  Congress  and  recommended  to 
the  States  for  ratification.  Among  the  problems  under 
discussion  most  difficult  of  solution  by  Congress  were: 
(1)  What  powers  were  to  be  given  the  General  Govern 
ment  and  what  powers  retained  by  the  States;  (2)  How 
were  disputes  among  the  States  to  be  settled;  (3)  The 
number  of  votes  to  be  given  each  State;  and  (4)  The 
method  of  raising  revenue. 

The  Articles  of  Confederation  provided  for  a   "firm  Nature  of 
league  of  friendship"  between  the  States.     The  authority  J5JJ2 
of  the  Central  Government  was  vested  in  a  Congress  of  tabiished. 
delegates  who  were  appointed  annually  by  and  were  re 
sponsible  to  the  State  legislatures.     Not  less  than  two  nor 
more  than  seven  members  could  be  sent  from  each  State. 
Each  State  was  entitled  to  only  a  single  vote  on  any  ques- 

183 


184 


American  History 


Defects  in 
the  gov 
ernment. 


tion.  Among  the  powers  of  Congress  were:  the  "exclusive 
right  and  power  of  declaring  war  and  making  peace"; 
authority  to  raise  an  army  by  calling  upon  each  State  for 
its  quota  of  troops  and  to  build  and  equip  a  navy;  and 
power  to  establish  and  regulate  post-offices  and  to  send 
and  receive  ambassadors. 

There  were  many  defects  also  in  the  actual  working  of 
this  government.  It  provided  for  no  separate  executive 
authority  to  execute  and  no  separate  judiciary  to  interpret 
the  laws.  Congress  might  make  the  laws  but  could  not 
enforce  them.  This  was  because  the  General  Government 
had  no  power  of  taxation  but  was  obliged  to  depend  upon 
the  State  legislatures  for  necessary  revenues.  Congress 
acted  on  the  States,  not  on  individuals,  but  it  had  no 
power  to  coerce  the  States.  "Its  function  was  to  advise, 
not  to  command."  Besides,  no  important  measure  could 
be  passed  in  Congress  without  the  votes  of  nine  States. 
The  Articles  could  not  be  amended  save  by  the  ratification 
of  all  the  States.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation  did  not  institute  a  nation,  but  formed  merely 
a  league  of  States.  We  think  of  them  as  constituting  a 
weak  instrument  of  government.  We  must  remember, 
however,  that  as  a  constitution  for  a  confederation,  it 
was  superior  to  any  which  had  been  previously  formed. 
But  circumstances,  which  we  shall  now  consider,  showed 
that  a  confederation  was  not  adapted  to  the  growing  needs 
of  the  United  States. 

Nearly  three  years  and  a  half  elapsed  after  the  date  of 
ieSsiat-the  the  submission  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation  to  the 
ures.  States  before  they  were  ratified  by  the  last  legislature,  that 

of  Maryland.  Delay  was  due  to  the  disputes  which  had 
arisen  over  the  disposal  of  the  lands  between  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River.  Seven  States  laid 
claim  to  this  territory. 

Western  The  Carolinas  and  Georgia  claimed  (under  various  charters 

land  and  grants)  the  region  south  of  the  Virginia  line  lying  west  of  their 

claims.          borders  as  far  as  the  Mississippi.     Massachusetts  laid   claim, 


Ratifica- 


The  Period  of  the  Confederation  185 

under  her  charter  of  1629  and  Connecticut  under  a  charter  of 
1662,  to  strips  of  land  west  of  the  boundary  of  New  York.  (See 
map  p.  187.) 

But  the  claims  of  Virginia  and  New  York  were  the  most  far- 
reaching.  Virginia  maintained  that  the  charter  of  1609  gave  her 
control  not  alone  of  Kentucky  but  also  of  the  territory  extending 
north-west  from  the  Ohio  River  to  Lake  Superior.  Besides,  it 
was  stated  as  an  additional  right  to  this  claim  that  Virginia 
soldiers  supported  by  Virginia  money  and  under  the  leadership 
of  George  Rogers  Clark  had  won  this  territory  in  1778-1779. 
New  York  maintained  that  on  account  of  various  treaties  she 
had  become  the  lawful  successor  to  the  Western  lands  formerly 
claimed  by  the  Iroquois. 

The  other  States  were  unable  to  advance  any  claims  Maryland 
to  Western  lands.  They  maintained,  however,  that  this  Jati^the 
territory  had  been  gained  through  a  war  in  which  there  Articles, 
had  been  common  sacrifice  and  that  the  individual  States 
should  surrender  their  claims.  Maryland  refused  to  ratify 
the  Articles  of  Confederation  unless  first  assured  that  these 
lands  were  to  become  the  property  of  the  United  States. 
The  other  States  had  ratified  by  February,  1779,  but  Mary 
land  feared  the  future  power  of  Virginia.  Virginia  planned 
to  pay  off  her  soldiers  by  grants  of  Western  lands,  while 
Maryland  would  be  compelled  to  meet  this  obligation  by 
taxation.  Congress,  on  October  10,  1780  suggested  that 
the  States  should  cede  their  unappropriated  lands  to  the 
General  Government  to  be  disposed  of  "for  the  common 
good  of  the  United  States."  New  York  had  already  de 
cided  to  give  up  her  claims.  Virginia,  in  January,  1781, 
promised  to  take  like  action.  Maryland  then  agreed  to 
ratify,  and  the  Articles  of  Confederation  soon  went  into 
operation. 

New  York  relinquished  all  of  her  western  lands  in  1781.     Vir-    The 
ginia,  in  1784,  completed  her  cession  of  western  territory,  re-       ^th  • 
serving  jurisdiction  over  Kentucky,  which  remained  a  part  of    western 
Virginia  until  1792,  when  it  became  a  State.     Virginia  also  re-   lands, 
served  a  tract  north  of  the  Ohio  as  bounty  land  for  soldiers  of 
the  Revolution.     Massachusetts  surrendered  her  claims  in  1786. 
Connecticut,  in  her  cession  of  the  same  year,  reserved  a  strip  of 


186 


American  History 


Results  of 

the 

cessions. 


land  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  long  west  of  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  A  part  of  this  Western  Reserve  was 
sold,  and  the  proceeds  were  used  to  aid  the  Connecticut  schools. 
In  1800  Connecticut  granted  to  the  United  States  complete 
authority  over  the  "Reserve,"  some  3,250,000  acres.  In  1787 
South  Carolina  surrendered  her  claim;  North  Carolina,  in  1790, 
gave  Congress  jurisdiction  over  her  remaining  western  lands. 
The  territory  between  the  present  western  boundary  of  Georgia 
and  the  Mississippi  River  was  not  ceded  by  Georgia  until  1802. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  importance  of  these 
cessions.  A  series  of  inevitable  controversies  over  con 
flicting  claims  were  thus  happily  escaped.  From  that 
time,  this  western  territory  was  regarded  as  the  property 
of  the  Confederation  to  be  used  for  National  purposes. 
Here  was  the  beginning  of  the  National  Domain.  The 
interest  felt  by  the  States  in  this  mutual  property  has 
always  strengthened  the  ties  of  union. 

While  the  contest  over  the  adoption  of  the  Articles  of 


Roosevelt, 

ning  o?tiie   Confederation  went  on,  sturdy  pioneers  continued  to  cross 

West, 
I,  219. 


the  mountains  and  take  possession  in  their  own  way  of 
the  lands  in  dispute.  "They  possessed  the  courage  that 
enabled  them  to  defy  outside  foes,  together  with  the  rough, 
practical  common-sense  that  allowed  them  to  establish  a 
simple  but  effective  form  of  government,  so  as  to  preserve 
order  among  themselves.  To  succeed  in  the  wilderness 
it  was  necessary  to  possess  not  only  daring,  but  also  pa 
tience,  and  the  capacity  to  endure  grinding  toil.  The 
pioneers  were  hunters  and  husbandmen."  .  .  .  "As  a  rule, 
each  knot  of  settlers  was  gathered  together  into  a  little 
stockaded  hamlet,  called  a  fort  or  station." 

By  1784  it  is  estimated  that  there  were  30,000  people  in 
Kentucky  alone,  and  12,000  more  came  during  that  year. 
Some  of  them,  by  blazing  a  tree  and  marking  it  with  the 
date  and  the  number  of  acres,  established  what  was  called 
a  "tomahawk  claim"  to  the  land.  Others,  by  clearing  a 
few  acres  and  planting  them,  set  up  what  was  known  as 
the  "corn  title."  These  possessions  must  be  defended 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Indians  or  seizure  by  other 


THE  UNITED  STATES 

1783 
....  WESTERN  LAND  CLAIMS 


30  — 1£  > 


90  Longitude  85  West 


from  75  Greenwich 


187 


188 


American  History 


Survey  of 
the 

western 
lands. 


The 

rectangu 
lar  system. 


The 

Ordinance 
of  1784. 


The 

Ordinance 
of  1787. 


settlers,  who  came  with  "land  warrants"  from  the  govern 
ment  of  Virginia.  It  is  stated  that  one  thousand  boats,  car 
rying  settlers,  descended  the  Ohio  River  in  a  single  year. 
Most  of  the  settlers  went  to  the  Kentucky  side,  but  many 
ascended  the  river  valleys  to  the  north.  Indian  lands  were 
seized  regardless  of  the  proclamation  by  Congress,  in  1783, 
that  such  occupation  was  unlawful. 

Congress  determined,  even  before  the  cessions  of  west 
ern  lands  were  completed,  to  sell  them  and  in  this  way 
partially  provide  for  the  payment  of  the  National  debt. 
The  provision  for  the  first  systematic  survey  of  these  lands 
was  made  in  1785. 

The  rectangular  survey  was  to  be  used.  This  plan  had  been 
suggested  the  year  before  by  a  committee  of  which  Thomas 
Jefferson  was  chairman.  According  to  this  system,  lands  were 
divided  into  townships  six  miles  square.  One  section  of  each 
township  was  to  be  set  aside  for  the  support  of  the  public  schools. 
Land  was  to  be  sold  at  a  minimum  price  of  one  dollar  an  acre,  a 
price  which  did  not  cover  the  actual  cost  of  the  survey. 

Congress  had  no  constitutional  authority  for  governing  this 
territory.  As  early  as  1780,  however,  it  had  been  proposed  to 
make  new  States  out  of  it,  and  in  pursuance  of  this  plan,  Jefferson, 
1784,  submitted  a  report  providing  for  the  government  of 
the  whole  western  country.  It  was  proposed  to  make  four 
teen  States,  each  having  a  classic  name,  as  Metropotamia,  Poly- 
potamia,  and  Illinoia.  These  States  might  adopt  constitutions 
like  that  of  any  of  fhe  original  States  and  become  members  of  the 
Confederation.  The  ordinance  was  adopted  by  Congress  when 
the  clause  abolishing  slavery  "after  the  year  1800"  was  removed, 
but  the  names  suggested  for  the  States  were  rejected.  The 
ordinance  remained  practically  a  dead  letter  for  the  next  three 
years,  when  it  became  the  foundation  for  the  more  famous 
Northwest  Ordinance. 

In  1786,  the  "Ohio  Company  of  Associates"  was 
organized  at  Boston  in  the  interests  of  Revolutionary 
soldiers  who  desired  to  procure  homes  in  the  West.  Gen 
erals  Rufus  Putnam  and  Samuel  Parsons  and  Manasseh 
Cutler,  a  minister,  were  the  directors.  In  July,  1787, 
while  a  committee  of  Congress  was  considering  an  ordi 
nance  for  the  government  of  the  Northwest,  Cutler  asked 


The  Period  of  the  Confederation 


189 


Some  pro 
visions  of 
the 
Ordinance. 


that  lands  in  this  territory  might  be  exchanged  for  the 
soldiers'  certificates  held  by  members  of  the  Ohio  Com 
pany.  The  draft  of  the  Ordinance  was  submitted  to  him, 
and  he  became  the  author  of  some  of  its  notable  provisions. 
This  famous  Ordinance,  having  received  the  votes  of  the 
eight  States  then  represented  in  Congress,  became  a  law, 
July  13,  1787. 

It  applied  only  to  the  government  to  be  organized  for  the  terri 
tory  bounded  by  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers  and  the  Great 
Lakes,  a  territory  out  of  which  from  three  to  five  States  were  to  be 
formed.  The  officers  of  government  to  be  appointed  by  Congress 
were  a  governor  and  three  judges.  Provision  was  made  for  a 
general  assembly  so  soon  as  there  should  be  five  thousand  free 
white  men  in  the  territory.  This  assembly,  besides  having  cer 
tain  legislative  powers,  was  authorized  to  elect  a  delegate  to  Con 
gress  who  should  have  the  right  to  take  part  in  debate  but  not  to 
vote.  Settlers  were  to  be  granted  religious  freedom  and  right  of 
trial  by  jury.  Schools  were  to  be  encouraged.  Slavery  and  in 
voluntary  servitude  were  prohibited  except  as  a  punishment  for 
crime,  "whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted." 

Nathan  Dane  and  Rufus  King  were  prominent  members  of  the 
committee  which  drafted  the  ordinance.  The  former  was  chair 
man.  Speaking  broadly,  the  ordinance  represents  the  substance 
of  the  discussions  of  years  over  the  problems  of  western  settle 
ment.  It  indicates  also  the  progress  which  was  then  being  made 
towards  social  and  religious  freedom.  The  legislature  of  Virginia, 
under  the  leadership  of  Jefferson,  by  an  act  of  1778,  prohibited 
the  importation  of  slaves  into  that  State  from  foreign  countries. 
All  of  the  other  States  save  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  had,  by 
1787,  abolished  or  placed  restrictions  on  the  importation  of  ne 
groes.  In  most  of  the  Northern  States,  emancipation  had  been 
accomplished  or  begun. 

In  1776  Jefferson,  in  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  had  directed  an 
attack  against  aristocracy  and  had  brought  about  the  destruction 
of  the  rule  of  primogeniture  in  that  State.  Similar  action  was 
taken  in  other  States. 

The  Ordinance  became  a  model  for  the  later  organization  influence 
of  territories.     It  has  been  classed  in  importance  with  the  ordinance. 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  Constitution.     "I 
doubt,"  said   Webster,  "whether  one  single  law  of  any 
law-giver,  ancient  or  modern,  has  produced  effects  of  more 


Social  and 
religious 
progress 
and  the 
origin  of 
the  North 
west 
Ordinance. 


190 


American  History 


First  land 
sales  and 
settle 
ments. 


distinct,  marked  and  lasting  character  than  the  Ordinance 
of  1787." 

On  October  27,  1787,  the  Ohio  Company  secured  about 
a  million  acres  of  western  lands.  General  Putnam  was 
elected  leader.  Two  divisions  of  the  pioneers,  forty-eight 
in  all,  set  out  from  Ipswich,  Massachusetts.  After  cross 
ing  the  Hudson,  they  passed  through  Pennsylvania  and 
reached  the  Youghiogheny  River,  early  in  1788.  With 


View  of  Pittsburg  in  1790 

rude  boats  and  canoes,  hastily  built,  the  voyagers  moved 
down  this  river  to  Pittsburg,  thence  down  the  Ohio  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Muskingum.  There,  as  previously  agreed 
upon,  they  founded  a  town,  Marietta.  Meantime,  Gen 
eral  Arthur  St.  Clair  had  been  appointed  Governor.  He 
reached  Marietta  in  July,  1788,  was  received  with  "due 
honors,"  and  within  a  few  days  put  into  force  the  pro 
visions  of  the  Northwest  Ordinance. 

In  May,  1788,  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  acres  of  land 
between  the  Great  and  Little  Miami  rivers  were  secured  by 
John  Cleves  Symmes  and  a  few  associates.  The  terms  of 
purchase  were  practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  Ohio 


The  Period  of  the  Confederation  191 

\ 

Company.  A  New  Jersey  colony  of  sixty  persons,  under 
Judge  Symmes,  reached  the  grant,  September  22,  1788. 
Within  two  months  a  settlement  was  begun  on  the  site  of 
the  city  of  Cincinnati.  Here  Fort  Washington  was  built 
during  the  winter  of  1789-1790.  Governor  St.  Clair 
established  his  head-quarters  there  in  1790. 

Some  of  the  foreign  powers  early  showed  a  desire  to  Foreign 
enter  into  treaty  relations  with  the  new  Confederation.   Jfnde^the 
A  commercial  treaty  was  made  with  Holland  in  1782,  and  Confedera- 
in  the  following  year  that  nation  sent  a  minister.     France 
was  the  only  other  nation  represented  in  America  at  the 
time.     In  1783,  Sweden,  and  in  1785,  Prussia  also  made 
commercial  treaties. 

At  the  close  of  the  war,  however,  American  foreign  trade  Commerce 
was  chiefly  with  Great  Britain.     That  nation  refused  to  England 
make  a  commercial  treaty,  since  any  State  might  break  it,   and  her 
and  still  seem  determined  to  interfere  with  American  com 
merce.    In  1783,  it  was  decreed,  by  an  Order  in  Council, 
that  trade  between  the  United  States  and  the  British  West 
Indies  could  be  carried  on  only  in  vessels  which  were  British 
built  and  were  owned  and  manned  by  subjects  of  Great 
Britain.     The  retaliatory  measures  of  the  States  on  British 
commerce  were  of  little  effect. 

It  was  hoped  that  John  Adams,  who  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Great  Britain  in  1785,  would  secure  more  sat 
isfactory  relations.  But  his  efforts  were  futile,  and  upon 
his  own  request  he  was  recalled  in  1787.  "It  is  very  ap 
parent,"  he  wrote  from  England,  "that  we  shall  never  have 
a  satisfactory  arrangement  with  this  country,  until  Con 
gress  shall  be  made  by  the  States  supreme  in  matters  of 
foreign  commerce  and  until  Congress  shall  have  exerted 
that  supremacy  with  a  decent  firmness." 

Besides,  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1783  had  been  kept 
by  neither  party.  The  States  placed  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  British  creditors  collecting  their  private  debts  in  America. 
On  the  other  hand,  Great  Britain  declined  to  make  com 
pensation  for  the  slaves  carried  away  by  the  English  army, 


192 


American  History 


with 
Spain. 


and  continued  to  hold  her  Western  forts,  the  most  important 
being  Oswego,  Niagara,  Detroit,  and  Mackinac. 
Difficulties  Spain  contended  that  the  boundary  of  her  territory 
should  be  farther  north  than  the  thirty-first  parallel  agreed 
upon  in  the  treaty  of  Paris.  In  1785,  therefore,  Gardoqui, 
envoy  from  Spain,  offered  to  enter  into  a  treaty  of  com 
merce  with  the  United  States 
providing  the  Mississippi 
were  closed  to  American 
traders  south  of  this  line,  the 
mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River. 
Northern  merchants,  desir 
ous  of  Spanish  trade,  were 
willing  to  accept  these  terms. 
The  people  of  the  West  pro 
tested;  for  New  Orleans  as 
a  market,  and  a  port  from 
which  their  products  might 
be  shipped,  would  thus  be 
closed  to  them.* 

John  Jay  John  Jay,  representing  the 

United  States,  on  August  3, 
1786,  recommended  that 
Congress  consent  to  a  treaty 

for  twenty-five  years  upon  the  terms  submitted  by 
the  Spanish  Minister.  Delegates  from  New  England 
favored  this  action,  but  it  was  opposed  by  those  of  the 
South. 

Meantime,  the  boat  and  property  of  a  trader  from  North 
Carolina  were  seized  by  Spanish  officers  at  Natchez. 
American  soldiers  at  Vincennes  retaliated  by  sacking  the 
store  of  a  Spaniard.  The  Western  settlers  threatened  to 
secede  from  the  Union  if  the  terms  favored  by  Jay  were 
accepted.  Congress  feared  to  take  action,  and  the  contro 
versy  was  not  finally  settled  until  1795. 

*  Their  chief  products,  corn  and  pork,  were  so  bulky  that  it  was  im 
practicable  to  transport  them  over  the  mountains  to  the  Eastern  markets. 


The  earliest  known  portrait  of  him,  engraved, 

in  1783,  from  a  pencil  drawing  by 

Du  Simitiere,  made  in  1779 


The  Period  of  the  Confederation 


193 


Not  only  were  the  States  jealous  of  the  power  of  the  Contro- 
Centrai  Government,  but  they  were  also  envious  of  one  among  the 
another.     It  seemed  at  times  that  civil  war  would  result  states. 
from  the  selfish  policy  pursued  by  the  States.     New  York 
taxed  the  products  coming  to  its  markets  from  Connecti 
cut  and  New  Jersey.     Merchants  of  Connecticut  agreed 
to  hold  no  intercourse  with  New  York.     New  Jersey  taxed 


The  Franklin  Penny 


First  United  States  Coin 


the  light-house  recently  built  by  New  York  City  on  Sandy 
Hook.  Similar  controversies  arose  between  the  other  States. 

The  financial  distress  of  the  Government  during  the  Financial 
Revolution   continued,  and   developed  during  the  years  ^^*ms 
of  the  Confederation.     Foreign  trade  soon  drained  the  Govern- 
country  of  the  greater  part  of  its  specie.     Sales  of  public  n 
lands  cancelled  the  certificates  of  indebtedness,  but  brought 
in  little  money.     The  Continental  currency  was  worthless. 
Robert  Morris,  who  had  been  superintendent  of  finances 
since   1781,  resigned   his   office   in    1784.     Management 
of  the  finances  was  entrusted  to  a  Congressional  Com 
mittee  of  three,   called  "The  Board  of  the  Treasury." 
The  States  became  more  delinquent  in  furnishing  the  sums 
of  money  asked  by  Congress.     Requisitions  amounting  to 
$10,000,000  had  been  made  on  the  States  between  Novem 
ber  1,  1781,  and  January  1,  1786,  but  less  than  $2,500,000 
came  into  the  treasury.     This  sum  was  not  adequate  to 
meet  the  interest  on  the  national  debt  then  amounting  to 
$42,000,000.    At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1786,  Madison 


194 


American  History 


Disorder 

within  the 
States. 


Shays's 

Rebellion, 

1786. 


Attempts 
to  amend 
the 
Articles. 


wrote  Randolph:  "Our  situation  is  becoming  every  day 
more  and  more  critical.  No  money  comes  into  the  Federal 
treasury;  no  respect  is  paid  to  the  Federal  authority;  and 
people  of  reflection  unanimously  agree  that  the  existing 
Confederacy  is  tottering  to  its  foundation." 

Business  confidence  had  wellnigh  disappeared.  In 
1785,  under  the  lead  of  the  debtor  classes,  the  demand 
became  general  for  new  issues  of  paper  money  by  the  State 
governments.  Seven  legislatures  yielded  to  the  demand. 
Scarcely  were  the  notes  in  circulation  before  they  began  to 
depreciate  in  value  and  people  refused  to  accept  them  in 
payment  of  debts.  In  Rhode  Island,  any  person  who  re 
fused  to  accept  the  bills  of  the  State  was  subject  to  a  fine-of 
one  hundred  dollars  and  the  loss  of  his  rights  as  a  freeman. 

Discontent  was  most  pronounced  in  Massachusetts,  a 
discontent  due  to  stagnation  in  business,  lack  of  employ 
ment,  and  the  consequent  inability  of  debtors  to  pay  their 
debts.  As  frequently  happens  at  such  times,  the  restless, 
idle,  and  vicious,  asserted  their  wrongs.  Hatred  for 
lawyers  who  tried  cases  against  helpless  debtors  and  for 
judges  was  especially  bitter.  Armed  mobs  prevented  the 
holding  of  court  at  Worcester  and  some  other  towns. 
During  the  closing  months  of  1786,  some  nineteen  hundred 
insurgents  wTere  collected  under  the  leadership  of  Daniel 
Shays,  who  had  been  a  captain  in  the  Continental  army. 
He  was  not  a  man  to  maintain  discipline  among  such  fol 
lowers.  An  attempt  to  capture  the  United  States  arsenal 
at  Springfield  was  foiled  through  their  defeat  by  the  State 
troops.  Within  a  short  time  they  were  completely  routed 
and  Shays  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  his  followers  were 
made  prisoners.  Many  others  escaped  into  adjoining 
States.  There  were  similar  outbreaks  in  Vermont  and 
New  Hampshire. 

Something  must  be  done  to  supply  Congress  with  rev 
enue,  since  the  amount  received  from  the  States  was  not 
adequate  to  pay  the  running  expenses  of  the  Government. 
The  attempt,  in  1781,  to  give  Congress  the  right  to  lay  a 


The  Period  of  the  Confederation  195 

duty  of  five  per  cent,  on  imports  was  defeated  by  the  vote 
of  Rhode  Island.  Two-  years  later,  Congress  proposed, 
in  order  to  provide  for  the  interest  on  the  public  debt,  that 
it  be  given  authority,  for  twenty-five  years  to  levy  specific 
duties  on  imports.  The  States  were  to  appoint  the 
collectors.  This  amendment  was  also  ratified  by  twelve 
States,  but  was  defeated  by  the  vote  of  New  York.  Other 
attempts  to  amend  the  Articles  of  Confederation  failed. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  nation  was  drifting  rapidly  tow 
ard  anarchy  and  open  rebellion.  In  the  dark  days  of 
Shays's  Rebellion,  Washington  wrote  to  Lee,  then  in  Con 
gress:  "You  talk,  my  good  Sir,  of  employing  influence  to 
appease  the  present  tumults  in  Massachusetts.  I  know 
not  where  that  influence  is  to  be  found  or  if  obtainable  that 
it  would  be  a  proper  remedy  for  the  disorders.  Influence 
is  not  government.  Let  us  have  one  by  which  our  lives, 
liberties,  and  properties  will  be  secured  or  let  us  know  the 
worst."  This  expressed  the  sentiment  which  was  general 
with  Madison,  Hamilton,  and  other  leaders.  The  ad 
vance  toward  a  stronger  Union  was  thus  made  possible. 

SUGGESTIVE  REFERENCES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Economic,  political  and  religious  conditions  (1783-1787). 
McMaster,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  I,  chap.  I. 

2.  Formation  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation  and  Govern 
ment  established.     Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  6-14. 

3.  Why  was  the  adoption  of  the  Articles  so  long  delayed? 
Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  189.     Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union, 
93-95. 

4.  Elements  of  disunion  among  the  people.     Walker,  Making 
of  the  Nation,  1-5. 

5.  Read  the  Articles  of  Confederation.     Powers  of  Congress. 
Powers  of  the  separate  States.    Method  of  voting.    See  American 
History  Leaflets,  No.  20,  James  and  Sanford,  Government   in 
State  and  Nation,  Appendix  AA. 

6.  The  rectangular  survey  and  its   advantages.     James  and 
Sanford,  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  329-332. 

7.  Slavery  under  the  Confederation.     Fiske,  Critical  Period, 
70-83. 


196  American  History 

8.  The  attitude  of  Jefferson  toward  freedom  of  religion  and 
toward  slavery.     Jefferson,  Am.  St.  Series,  70-83. 

9.  The    Northwest    Ordinance.     Old    South   Leaflets,   Nos. 
13,  42.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  III,  No.  46. 

10.  The  Ohio  Company  and  settlement  of  Marietta.     Mc- 
Master,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  505-519.     Old  South 
Leaflets,  No.  40.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  III,  No.  32.     Roose 
velt,  Winning  of  the  West,  III,  chap.  6. 

11.  What  does  the  attempt  to  organize  the  State  of  Franklin 
illustrate?     Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  12. 

12.  Great  Britain  and  American  commerce.     Fiske,   Critical 
Period,  137-140. 

13.  The  nature  of  the  money  of  the  period  and  its  influence? 
Fiske,  Critical  Period,  162-186.    McLaughlin,  The  Confedera 
tion  and  the  Constitution,  138-154. 

14.  Shays's   Rebellion   and   other   disturbances.     McMaster, 
History  of  the  United  States,  I,  302-354.      McLaughlin,  The 
Confederation  and  the  Constitution,  154-167. 

15.  Proposals  to  amend  the  Articles  of  Confederation.   Ameri 
can  History  Leaflets,  No.  28. 

16.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  12. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  FEDERAL  CONSTITUTION 

DISPUTES  were  common  between  Virginia  and  Maryland  The  Con- 
over  the  navigation  of  the  Potomac  River  and  of  Chesa-  Aiexl™^ 
peake  Bay.     Finally,  in  1785,  commissioners  from  these  <iria,  1785. 
States,  on  the  recommendation  of  Madison,  met  at  Alex 
andria.     In  their  report  they  suggested  the  appointment 
of  a  commission  every  second  year  to  consider  the  com 
mercial  regulations  of  those  States  bordering  on  the  Po 
tomac  and  the  Chesapeake.     When  considering  the  re 
port,  the  Maryland  Assembly  agreed  to  invite  Pennsylvania 
and  Delaware  to  send  commissioners.     The  Virginia  Leg 
islature  proposed  a  convention  of  delegates  from  all  the 
States  to  consider  the  condition  of  the  trade  of  the  Confed 
eration  which  was  to  meet  at  Annapolis  (September  11, 
1786). 

There  were  present  at  Annapolis  on  the  appointed  day,   The  An- 
commissioners  from   Virginia,   Delaware,   Pennsylvania,   g*^* 
New  Jersey,  and  New  York.     Commissioners  from  some  tion,  1786. 
of  the  other  States  were  on  their  way,  but  Maryland, 
Georgia,  South  Carolina  and  Connecticut  had  appointed 
none.     Nothing  final  could  be  accomplished  with  so  few 
States  represented;  but  before  adjourning  they  agreed  to 
a  resolution  framed  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  which  pro 
posed  a  convention  to  meet  at  Philadelphia  for  the  purpose 
of  preparing  amendments  to  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 
Not  until  delegates  had  been  appointed  by  six  States  did 
Congress  practically  approve  of  the  plan  by  recommend 
ing  to  the  States  a  convention  identical   with  the  one 

197 


198 


American  History 


Delegates 
to  the 
Constitu 
tional  Con 
vention, 
1787. 


Our 

knowledge 
of  the  Con 
vention. 


Madison's 
Notes. 


already  provided  for  by  the  Annapolis  resolution.  The 
remaining  States,  Rhode  Island  excepted,  soon  appointed 
delegates. 

The  day  fixed  for  the  Convention  was  May  14,  but  not 
until  May  25  was  there  a  quorum  of  delegates  from 
seven  States  present  at  Philadelphia.  Seventy-three  dele 
gates  were  appointed  as  members  in  this,  one  of  the  most 
memorable  assemblies  that  the  world  has  ever  known,  but 
only  fifty-five  attended.  Washington  was  unanimously 
chosen  President  of  the  Convention.  He  took  no  active 
part  in  the  debates  but  his  presence  was  an  inspiration  to 
the  other  members,  and  his  influence  at  critical  times  can 
not  be  measured.  Besides  Franklin,  seven  other  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  were  present.  Among 
these  were  Roger  Sherman  of  Connecticut,  Elbridge  Gerry 
of  Massachusetts,  and  Robert  Morris  of  Pennsylvania. 
Edmund  Randolph  and  James  Madison  came,  with  others, 
from  Virginia.  Of  Madison,  called  the  "Father  of  the 
Constitution/'  a  member  wrote:  "From  a  spirit  of  industry 
and  application  which  he  possesses  in  a  most  eminent 
degreee,  he  always  comes  forward  the  best  informed  man 
on  any  point  in  debate."  Rufus  King  came  from  Mas 
sachusetts.  Delaware  sent  John  Dickinson.  Among  the 
other  more  notable  members  were  Alexander  Hamilton  of 
New  York;  Governor  William  Paterson  of  New  Jersey; 
Luther  Martin  of  Maryland;  and  the  two  Pinckneys  and 
John  Rutledge  from  South  Carolina. 

The  Convention  lasted  from  May  25  to  September  17,  1787. 
The  members  sat  behind  closed  doors.  The  official  journal  was 
entrusted  to  Washington,  who  deposited  it  in  the  public  archives 
in  1796.  It  was  published  in  1819  as  a  part  of  the  first  volume 
of  "Elliot's  Debates."  We  can  gather  little  from  the  Journal 
with  regard  to  what  was  said  by  the  members  in  these  immortal 
debates.  Fortunately,  Madison,  who  was  present  every  day, 
took  careful  notes  on  the  various  discussions.  "Nor  was  I  una 
ware,"  he  wrote,  "of  the  value  of  such  a  contribution  to  the  fund 
of  materials  for  the  history  of  a  Constitution  on  which  would  be 
staked  the  happiness  of  a  people  great  even  in  its  infancy,  and 
possibly  the  cause  of  liberty  throughout  the  world."  Hasty 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution      199 

notes  were  also  taken  by  King,  Yates,  and  a  few  other  members. 
Letters  written  by  some  of  the  members  to  their  friends  during 
the  first  days  also  give  us  valuable  material  on  some  phases  of 
the  Convention. 

The  magnitude  of  the  labor  of  the  Convention  can  be  The 
understood  only  as  we  read  the  discussions  in  Madison's 
Notes.  The  actual  work  was  begun  on  May  30,  when 
the  Convention  went  into  a  committee  of  the  whole  for  the 
purpose  of  considering  a  series  of  fifteen  resolutions  that 
had  been  presented  the  day  before  by  Edmund  Randolph. 
The  plan  of  government  set  forth  in  them,  known  as  the 
Virginia  Plan,  was  largely  the  work  of  Madison.  It  was 
under  consideration  until  June  13,  and  was  then  sub 
mitted  to  the  Convention,  Among  its  provisions  were 
the  following:  (1)  That  a  National  Government  should 
be  formed  possessing  supreme  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  powers;  (2)  that  the  legislative  power  should  be 
vested  in  a  Congress  of  two  separate  houses,  viz.,  a  House 
of  Delegates  to  be  chosen  by  the  people  of  the  States,  and 
a  Senate  to  be  elected  by  the  House  of  Delegates; '(3)  that 
the  representation  in  both  houses  should  be  based  on  popu 
lation  or  on  contributions  to  the  support  of  the  Govern 
ment,  and  (4)  that  the  executive  should  be  chosen  by  both 
houses  of  Congress  and  the  members  of  the  judiciary  by 
the  Senate.  It  had  been  attacked  fiercely  in  the  committee 
by  the  delegates  from  the  smaller  States  who  desired  to 
maintain  equality  of  State  representation.  They  held  that 
if  the  plan  proposed  were  adopted  the  Government  would 
pass  into  the  hands  of  the  large  States. 

The  small  States  agreed  upon  a  series  of  eleven  resolu-  The  New 
tions,  known  as  the  New  Jersey  Plan,  which  were  pre- 
sented  by  Mr.  Paterson  of  that  State  on  June  15.  They 
provided  for  a  continuance  of  the  government  under  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  which  were  to  be  revised  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  give  to  Congress  the  power  to  regulate  com 
merce,  raise  revenue,  and  coerce  the  States.  There  were 
also  to  be  executive  and  judicial  departments.  This  plan 


200 


American  History 


The 

Pinckney 

Plan. 


Hamilton's 
views. 


The 

Virginia 
vs.  the  New 
Jersey 
Plan. 


of  the  small  States  expressed  the  ideas  of  those  opposing 
the  Virginia  plan  upon  two  points;  (1)  a  supreme  National 
Government;  and  (2)  proportional  representation.  It  was 
agreed  upon  among  the  members  from  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Luther  Martin  of  Mary 
land. 

On  the  same  day  that  the  Virginia  Plan  was  brought  before  the 
Convention,  Charles  Pinckney  submitted  a  series  of  resolutions 
resembling  those  presented  by  Randolph.  It  never  received  a 
separate  consideration,  but  had  considerable  influence  on  parts 
of  the  Constitution. 

Hamilton  wanted  a  highly  centralized  government.  He 
sketched  a  brief  outline  of  government  which  provided  that  the 
terms  of  the  "Governor,"  Senators,  and  Judges  were  to  be  during 
good  behavior.  It  was  not,  however,  formally  proposed  to  the 
Convention  and  wa<3  never  referred  to  a  committee.  A  few  days 
before  the  adjournment  of  the  Convention,  Hamilton  entrusted  to 
Madison  for  preservation  a  more  elaborate  plan.  This  plan  had 
no  influence  whatever  on  the  final  draft  of  the  Constitution. 

The  contest  centered  on  the  Virginia  and  the  New  Jersey 
Plans.  Those  who  opposed  the  Virginia  Plan  asserted  that 
it  would  destroy  the  sovereignty  of  the  States ;  and  that  they 
did  not  possess  the  power  to  create  such  a  government. 
Said  Paterson:  "I  came  here  not  to  speak  my  own  senti 
ments  but  the  sentiments  of  those  who  sent  me.  Our  object 
is  not  such  a  government  as  may  be  best  in  itself,  but  such 
a  one  as  our  constituents  have  authorized  us  to  prepare 
and  as  they  will  approve."  To  this  sentiment  Randolph 
replied:  "When  the  salvation  of  the  Republic  is  at  stake, 
it  would  be  treason  not  to  propose  what  we  find  necessary. 
.  .  .  The  true  question  is  whether  we  shall  adhere  to  the 
federal  plan,  or  introduce  the  national  plan.  The  insu£ 
ficiency  of  the  former  has  been  fully  displayed  by  the  trial 
already  made."  Finally,  the  arguments  of  Madison,  Wil 
son,  and  King  triumphed,  and  the  Virginia  Plan  was 
accepted  as  the  basis  for  a  new  Constitution.  The  debates 
became  even  more  heated  than  before  as  resolution  after 
resolution  was  considered.  The  critical  time  came  when  the 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution      201 

clause  which  provided  for  proportional  representation  was 
reached.  The  opposition  asserted  that  they  would  rather 
submit  to  a  foreign  power  than  be  deprived  of  equality 
of  suffrage  in  both  branches  of  the  Legislature. 

Finally,  a  vote  on  June  29  indicated  that  membership  The  Con- 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  was  to  be  based  upon  com-CUt 
proportional  representation.     This  was  a  victory  for  the  promise, 
national  men.      How  was  the  Senate  to  be  constituted  ?   Article  T 
The  delegates  from  Connecticut  demanded  that  the  States  section  2, 
have  equality  of  representation  in  the  second  branch  of  the  clause  3- 
National  Legislature.     Over  this  proposition  the  votes  of  Article  i, 
the  States  were  evenly  divided.     A  committee  of  one  mem- 
ber  from  each  State  to  which  the  question  was  submitted 
recommended  that  each  State  should  have  an  equal  vote 
in  the  Senate.     After  another   heated   debate,  this   was 
accepted  by  the  Convention  on  July  16.     When  the  small 
States  were  given  an  equal  vote  with  the  large  States  in  the 
Senate,  they  no  longer  feared  "absorption,"  and  united  in 
giving  yet  greater  powers  to  the  General  Government. 

How  were  the  number  of  Representatives  from  each  Number 
State  to  be  determined  and  direct  taxes  to  be  apportioned  ?  geruaSves 
If  the  number  of  representatives  from  each  State  was  to 
depend  on  population  alone,  the  delegates  feared  that  the 
new  States  which  might  be  formed  west  of  the  mountains 
would  gain  too  great  power.  "If  the  Western  people  get 
the  power  into  their  hands,"  Gouverneur  Morris  declared, 
"they  will  ruin  the  Atlantic  interests."  The  motion  that 
the  number  of  members  sent  to  the  House  by  the  new 
States  should  never  exceed  those  sent  by  the  old,  was  lost, 
although  it  was  favored  by  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
Delaware  and  Maryland. 

Were  slaves  to  be  counted  in  establishing  the  basis  of  The  three- 
representation  and  apportionment  of  direct  taxes?     The  promise!11 
South  Carolina  delegates  maintained  that  slaves  were  a  part 
of  the  population,  and  as  such  should  be  counted.     Ob 
jections  were  made  that  slaves  were  not  represented  in  the 
Legislatures  of  South  Carolina  and  other  States  and,  in 


202 


American  History 


Article  I, 
section  2, 
clause  3. 


The  third 
great  com 
promise. 


Article  I, 
section  8, 
clause  3. 

Article  I, 
section  9, 
clause  1. 


Form  of 
govern 
ment. 


consequence,  ought  not  to  be  represented  in  the  National 
Legislature;  that  they  were  regarded  in  those  States  merely 
as  property,  and  as  such  should  not  be  represented.  At 
this  point  there  was  grave  danger  that  the  work  of  the  Con 
vention  would  fail.  Finally,  a  proposition  was  introduced 
to  the, effect  that  slaves  were  to  be  represented  as  ''other 
persons,"  three-fifths  of  whom  were  to  be  counted.  An 
other  clause  was  inserted  for  the  purpose  of  reconciling 
the  non-slaveholding  States:  that  " direct  taxes  should  be 
apportioned  in  the  same  manner  as  representatives." 

Eastern  members  representing  the  commercial  States 
wished  the  National  Government  to  have  the  right  to  regu 
late  foreign  and  interstate  commerce.  This  was  resisted 
by  some  of  the  delegates  from  the  South.  Leading  men 
from  the  Middle  States  and  from  Virginia  and  Maryland 
were  opposed  to  the  further  importation  of  slaves.  The 
other  Southern  States  were  determined  to  continue  this 
traffic.  Finally,  a  compromise  was'  agreed  upon  which 
gave  Congress  power  over  commerce,  but  forbade  any  act 
which  might  prohibit  the  importation  of  slaves  prior  to 
1808.  It  was  agreed  also  that  a  tax  of  ten  dollars  each 
might  be  laid  on  all  slaves  imported.  While  the  Constitu 
tion  may  be  said  to  be  made  up  of  a  series  of  compromises, 
these  three  settled,  for  the  time,  the  questions  which  were 
most  vital  and  rendered  the  further  work  of  the  Convention 
possible. 

The  Constitution  divided  power  among  three  practically 
independent  departments  of  government;  the  Legislative, 
the  Executive,  and  the  Judicial.  In  place  of  the  single 
house  of  the  Confederation  there  was  to  be  formed  a  leg 
islative  body  consisting  of  two  houses.  Experience  had 
proved  that  a  strong  executive  power  was  necessary  to  en 
force  the  laws.  It  was  finally  agreed  to  entrust  this  power 
to  a  single  person,  the  President.  Hamilton  characterized 
the  lack  of  a  judiciary,  under  the  Confederation,  as  the 
crowning  defect  of  that  Government.  The  conviction  that 
the  Federal  Judiciary  should  constitute  one  of  the  three 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution      203 

parts  of  the  Government  was  general  in  the  Convention, 
and  after  a  brief  discussion  provision  was  made  for  it. 

On  September  17,  the  final  draft  of  the  Constitution  Signers  of 
was  submitted  to  the  delegates  for  their  signatures,  Jl^™.11811 
George  Mason,  Edmund  Randolph,  and  Elbridge  Gerry 
refused  to  sign.  Thirteen  members  were  absent,  but  only 
four  of  these,  including  Luther  Martin,  were  absolutely 
opposed  to  the  Constitution.  The  other  thirty-nine  mem 
bers,  representing  twelve  States,  affixed  their  names  to 
the  document  and  the  Convention  adjourned.  While  the 
last  signatures  were  being  written,  Franklin  said  to  those 
standing  near  him,  as  he  called  attention  to  a  sun  bla 
zoned  on  the  back  of  the  President's  chair;  "I  have  often 
and  often  in  the  course  of  the  session  and  the  vicissitudes 
of  my  hopes  and  fears  as  to  its  issue,  looked  at  that  be-  . 
hind  the  President  without  being  able  to  tell  whether  it 
was  rising  or  setting;  but  now,  at  length,  I  have  the  hap 
piness  to  know  that  it  is  a  rising  and  not  a  setting  sun." 

The  Federal  Government,  according  to  the  Constitu-  Supreme 
tion,  was  no  longer,  as  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,   o"Jhe^ov 
to  be  the  agent  of  or  to  be  dependent  upon  the  States.     Its  emment 

i  i       •  .  •  j    •  i  j  estab- 

laws  were  to  be  imperative,  not  advisory  merely,  and  were  nshed. 
to  operate  upon  persons  and  not  States.  Certain  significant 
powers  were  bestowed  upon  the  National  Government 
such  as  the  right  to  tax;  to  regulate  commerce;  to  make  war  • 
and  peace;  to  support  an  army  and  navy;  and  to  coin 
money.  The  peculiarity  of  the  new  Government  lies  in  the 
division  of  powers  between  State  and  National  authorities. 
The  National  Government  was  to  exercise  certain  powers 
enumerated  in  the  Constitution.  All  other  powers  not  pro 
hibited  by  the  Constitution  to  the  States  were  to  be  re 
served  to  the  States  or  to  the  people.  "When  a  particular 
power  is  found  to  belong  to  the  States,  they  are  entitled 
to  the  same  complete  independence  in  its  exercise  as  is  the 
National  Government  in  wielding  its  own  authority.  Each 
within  its  sphere  has  sovereign  powers."* 

*  Cooley,  Principles  of  Constitutional  Law.  34. 


204 


American  History 


Origin  of 
the  Consti 
tution. 


Features  of 
State  Con 
stitutions 
followed 
by  the 
Conven-    . 
tion. 


Ratifica 
tion  of  the 
Constitu 
tion. 


Fortunately,  there  was  little  that  was  absolutely  new  in 
the  nature  of  the  proposed  Government.  English  prin 
ciples  of  government  were  of  influence  but  the  main  features 
were  derived  from  the  constitutions  of  the  several  States. 
These,  in  turn,  had  been  adopted  from  the  colonial  govern 
ments.  Many  of  the  delegates  to  the  convention  had 
helped  in  the  framing  of  the  State  constitutions,  and  all 
were  familiar  with  their  practical  working.  Thus,  "the 
Convention  was  led  astray  by  no  theories  of  what  might  be 
good,  but  clave  closely  to  what  experience  had  demon 
strated  to  be  good." 

There  was  a  legislature,  with  two  houses,  in  eleven  of  the  States 
and  the  terms,  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  were  com 
monly  used.  The  Constitution  of  Delaware  provided  for  the 
election  of  one-third  of  the  Senators  every  two  years.  Connecti 
cut  furnished  the  example  for  equal  representation  of  the  States 
in  the  Senate  and  for  proportional  representation  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  The  powers  of  the  President  resemble  closely 
those  granted  the  governors.  Some  of  the  delegates  were  fa 
miliar  also  with  other  provisions  ot  the  State  constitutions,  such 
as:  bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in  the  House;  the  proc 
ess  of  impeachment;  the  veto  power  and  governor's  message,  and 
language  of  the  first  ten  amendments.  It  has  been  said:  "The 
process  of  electing  the  President  is  almost  the  only  feature  not 
a  natural  growth." 

The  Constitution  was  submitted  to  Congress  September 
20.  It  was  to  go  into  effect  between  the  ratifying  States 
when  accepted  by  conventions  of  delegates  in  nine  States. 
The  period  included  between  September  28,  1787,  when 
Congress,  without  a  favorable  word  of  comment,  trans 
mitted  the  Constitution  to  the  legislatures  and  June  21, 
1788,  the  date  of  its  ratification  by  the  requisite  number  of 
State  conventions,  was  one  of  the  most  critical  in  our 
history. 

Delegates  to  conventions  were  elected  in  all  of  the  States, 
except  Rhode  Island.  In  all  the  conventions  the  Constitu 
tion  was  violently  assailed  by  its  foes.  Those  who  supported 
it  called  themselves  Federalists,  and  those  who  opposed  it 
were  known  as  Anti-Federalists.  In  general,  the  men  who 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution      205 

opposed  the  Constitution  represented  the  views  of  con-  Supporters 
stituents  who  lived  away  from  the  great  trade  centers,   opponents 
This  rural  population,  chiefly  engaged  in  agricultural  pur-  of  the 
suits,  was  frequently  a  debtor  class,  and  desired  that  the  tion. 
States  be  left  free  to  issue  a  depreciated  paper  money.  The 
landed  aristocracy  of  New  York  opposed  the  Constitu 
tion.     A  tax  on  their  lands  would  be  necessary  if  the  State 
were  to  be  deprived  of  the  duties  collected  at  their  chief 
port.     It  was  opposed  by  the  Kentucky  and  Tennessee 
districts  whose  connection  with  the  Atlantic  coast  was  but 
slight. 

On  the  other  hand,  its  advocates  were  men  from  the 
commercial  centers  or  those  who  represented  the  great  river 
valley  regions,  such  as  the  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Shen- 
andoah,  and  Ohio,  and  other  highways  of  trade.  The 
Tories  favored  the  Constitution  because  it  seemed  to  offer 
them  greater  protection. 

Among  the  leaders  in  the  State  conventions,  who  de-  Arguments 
fended  ably  the  views  of  the  opposition  were  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  Elbridge  Gerry,  George  Clinton,  and  Patrick  tion- 
Henry.  It  was  urged  that  the  President  would  become  a 
despot,  the  House  of  Representatives  a  corporate  tyrant, 
and  the  Senate  an  oligarchy;  that  equality  of  representation 
in  the  Senate  was  an  injustice  to  the  large  States;  and  that 
there  was  no  Bill  of  Rights  protecting  the  liberties  of  the 
people  against  encroachment  by  the  National  Govern 
ment.  Newspaper  letters,  tracts,  and  pamphlets  appeared 
in  large  numbers  denouncing  the  Constitution  as  dangerous. 

The  views  of  the  Federalists  were  well  presented  in  a 
letter  written  by  Washington  to  Patrick  Henry,  in  which  he 
said:  "I  wish  the  Constitution  which  is  offered  had  been 
more  perfect;  but  it  is  the  best  which  could  be  obtained  at 
this  time,  and  a  door  is  open  for  amendments  hereafter. 
The  political  concerns  of  this  country  are  suspended  by  a 
thread.  The  Convention  has  been  looked  up  to  by  the  re 
flecting  part  of  the  community  with  a  solicitude  which  is 
hardly  to  be  conceived,  and  if  nothing  had  been  agreed 


206  American  History 

on  by  that  body,  anarchy  would  soon  have  ensued,  the  seeds 
being  deeply  sown  in  every  soil." 

"  The  In  the  New  York  newspapers  a  series  of  political  essays 

Federal-  appeared  for  many  weeks  bearing  the  title  "The  Federal 
ist."  They  presented  the  case  for  the  Constitution  with 
such  logic  that  even  now  they  are  considered  the  best  com 
mentary  on  that  document  ever  written.  Hamilton  in 
stituted  the  plan  and  probably  wrote  fifty-one  of  the  essays, 
Madison  wrote  twenty-nine,  and  Jay  five. 

The  December  6,   1787,  the   Delaware   convention  ratified 

states  the  Constitution  without  a  dissenting  vote.  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey,  Georgia,  and  Connecticut  quickly  followed. 
Much  depended  on  the  aption  of  the  Massachusetts  con 
vention.  The  leading  opponent  of  the  Constitution  in  this 
State  was  Samuel  Adams.  A  letter  fr,om  Washington, 
which  was  published  in  a  Boston  newspaper,  had  much  to 
do  in  bringing  about  ratification  by  the  convention.  The 
sentiment  was  similar  to  that  presented  in  the  letter  to 
Patrick  Henry.  The  delegates  finally  accepted  the  propo 
sition  that  amendments  might  be  made  which  would  take 
the  place  of  a  Bill  of  Rights  and  ratified  the  Constitution 
with  the  vote  of  187  to  168.  Maryland  and  South  Caro 
lina,  after  a  heated  contest,  adopted  the  Constitution. 
The  ninth  State  was  finally  secured  through  the  ratification 
by  New  Hampshire  (June  21,  1788).  Before  this  news 
was  known  in  the  South,  Virginia  had  ratified  on  the  25th 
of  June.  Here  both  parties  had  notable  leaders.  "What 
right,"  exclaimed  Patrick  Henry,  "had  they  to  say,  We 
the  people?  .  .  .  Who  authorized  them  to  speak  the 
language  of  We  the  people,  instead  of,  We  the  States?" 
He  was  seconded  in  his  opposition  by  Mason  and  Richard 
Henry  Lee.  But  the  influence  of  Washington,  Marshall, 
and  Madison  finally  triumphed,  and  Virginia  ratified  with 
a  vote  of  eighty-nine  in  favor  and  seventy-nine  opposed. 

When  the  New  York  convention  assembled,  some  two- 
thirds  of  the  members,  under  the  able  leadership  of  Gov 
ernor  Clinton,  were  opposed  to  the  Constitution.  Ham- 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution      207 

ilton  was  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  secure  the  ratification 
by  this  State  and  to  his  influence  was  largely  due  the  favor 
able  action  in  the  close  vote  of  thirty  to  twenty-seven. 

A  second  convention  was  called  in  North  Carolina  and, 
November  21,  1789,  that  State  voted  to  adopt  the  Constitu 
tion.  Rhode  Island,  in  May  of  the  following  year,  after 
Congress  had  threatened  to  cut  her  off  from  the  privileges 
of  trade,  also  declared  in  favor  of  the  Constitution. 

When  nine  States  had  ratified  the  Constitution,  Con-   First  steps 
gress  passed  a  resolution  for  putting  the  new  Government  In^the 'new 
into  operation.     Presidential   electors  were  to  be  chosen  Govern- 
on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January,  1789.     They  were  to 
cast  their  votes  for  President  on  the  first  Wednesday  in 
February.     The  new  Government  was  to  go  into  operation 
on  the  first  Wednesday  of  March  which  happened  that  year 
to  be  the  fourth  of  the  month.     So  slowly  did  the  members 
of  Congress  assemble  that  the  House  of  Representatives 
was  not  organized  until  the  first  of  April  and  the  Senate  five 
days  later.     When  the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  it 
was  found,  as  had  been  expected,  that  Washington  was 
unanimously  chosen  President.     John  Adams  was  elected 
Vice-President,  having  received  thirty-four  votes,  the  next 
highest  number.* 

THE   NATION  IN   1789 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  for  us  to  picture  to  ourselves  the  Area  and 
nation  for  which  the  new  government  was  to  be  organized. 
The  area  of  the  United  States  was  843,000  square  miles,  ac 
cording  to  the  census  of  1790,  the  population  was  3,929,000. 
Of  these,  about  one-fifth  were  negroes,  mostly  slaves. 
Virginia  ranked  first  in  population,  having  747,610  in 
habitants.  Five  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  people 
were  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  Kentucky  having  a  popula 
tion  of  74,000  in  1790  and  Tennessee  35,000. 

*There  were  sixty-nine  electoral  votes  in  all.  Besides  John  Adams, 
nine  other  men  received  votes.  Among  them  were  John  Hancock  and 
Samuel  Adams. 


208 


American  History 


Cities. 


Classes 

and 

customs. 


There  were  no  large  cities.  The  most  important  were 
Philadelphia  with  a  population  of  42,500;  New  York,  with 
33,000;  Boston,  with  18,000;  Charleston,  with  16,000  and 
Baltimore  with  13,500.  The  streets  of  the  cities  were  nar 
row  and  were 
poorly  paved 
when  paved  at 
all.  There  were 
no  sewers,  and 
no  attention  was 
paid  to  proper 
sanitary  condi 
tions.  Diseases 
of  the  worst  sort 
were  prevalent. 
The  scourge  of 
yellow  fever  in 
fested  the  cities 
almost  yearly. 

Among  the 
official  and  aris 
tocratic  classes 
there  was  much 
social  display. 
The  style  and 
the  fashion  of 
the  English  gen 
try  were  still 
copied.  The  homes  of  the  rich  were  noted  for  their  spa- 
cio.us  rooms  and  elaborate  furnishings,  but  the  comforts 
of  to-day  were  mostly  lacking.  Drinking  of  spirituous 
liquors  and  gambling  were  common  among  all  classes. 
Duelling  and  lotteries  were  in  vogue;  many  public  im 
provements  and  a  number  of  academies  and  colleges  were 
assisted  by  money  received  from  lotteries. 

Farmers  usually  made  their  own  wooden  ploughs  and 
wagons,  cut  the  grain  with  a  scythe,  and  threshed  it  with  a 


DISTRIBUTION  OF 

POPULATION 

IN  1790 


Distribution  of  Population  in  1 790 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution       209 

i 

flail.  Most  of  the  clothing  of  the  family  was  homespun. 
The  fireplace  supplied  the  lack  of  a  stove,  and  light  was 
furnished  by  the  tallow  candle.  Wonderful  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  lives  of  day-laborers  since  thai  time. 
Wages  were,  in  purchasing  power,  less  than  one-half  the 
wages  of  to-day.  The  necessities  of  life  were  costly,  the 
mechanic  being  scarcely  able  to  supply  the  coarsest  food 
and  clothing  for  his  family  and  keep  out  of  debt. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  people  were  engaged  in  agricultural  Occupa- 
pursuits.  Wheat  was  the  leading  crop  and  was  grown  l 
chiefly  in  Connecticut,  the  Middle  States,  and  Virginia. 
These  States  also  produced  corn.  Hemp  and  flax  were 
cultivated  in  nearly  all  of  the  States;  the  Southern  States 
produced  tobacco,  rice,  and  indigo.  Cattle,  sheep  and 
hogs  were  raised  in  all  of  the  States.  Fishing  was  carried 
on  extensively  in  New  England.  Manufacturing,  with 
the  exception  of  ship-building,  was  of  little  importance. 
American  navigators  were  familiar  with  all  seas.  Besides 
an  extensive  European  and  West  Indian  trade,  that  with 
the  north-west  coast  of  America,  because  of  the  furs  and 
peltries,  was  becoming  important.  In  1789  some  forty- 
five  vessels  went  from  the  port  of  Boston  alone  to  this  coast 
and  to  India  and  China. 

The  value  of  the  imports  was  slightly  less  than  that  of  imports 
the  exports,  which  amounted  to  about  twenty  million  dol-  exports. 
lars  in  a  single  year.     Besides  tea,  having  a  value  of  one- 
seventh  of  the  articles  imported,  the  leading  imports  were 
manufactured  articles,  sugar,  salt,  coffee,  nails,  and  distilled 
spirits.     There  were  sent  out  of  the  country,  in  1789,  369,- 
000  barrels  of  flour  from  Pennsylvania  alone.     Other  chief 
articles  of  export  were  lumber,  rice,  wheat,  beef,  pork,  fish, 
and  pitch. 

A  French  traveller  wrote  of  the  enterprise  of  American  sailors:  Brissot  de 

"  You  see  their  flag  everywhere  displayed;  you  see  them  exploring  Warville, 

all  islands,  studying  their  wants,  and  returning  to  supply  them.  TT^-eis 

A  sloop  from  Albany  of  sixty  tons  and  eleven  men  had  the  cour-  (1788\. 

age  to  go  to  China.     The  Chinese,  on  seeing  her  arrive,  took  her  I>  268. 
for  the  cutter  of  some  large  vessel  and  asked,  where  was  the  great 


210 


American  History 


Means  of 
communi 
cation. 


District 
schools. 


Text 
books. 


Town 
schools. 


ship?     We  are  the  great  ship;  answered  they  to  the  Chinese, 
stupefied  at  their  hardiness." 

From  a  month  to  seven  weeks  and  even  three  months 
were  required  to  cross  the  Atlantic.  Domestic  trade  was 
limited  because  of  the  lack  of  good  roads  and  bridges. 
Boats  and  sailing  packets  were  common  on  the  rivers  and 
the  coast.  Stage-coaches  were  used  between  the  larger 
towns.  To  make  the  journey  from  Boston  to  New  York 
required  six  days.  Mails  were  ordinarily  carried  on  horse 
back.  Postmen  carried  the  mail  from  New  York  to  Phila 
delphia  five  times  each  week,  and  required  two  days  to 
make  the  journey. 

The  intellectual  life  of  the  people  developed  slowly. 
District  schools  were  common  in  New  England,  where 
school  was  "kept"  for  two  months  in  winter  by  a  man  and 
two  months  in  summer  by  a  woman.  The  boys  usually 
attended  in  winter  and  the  girls  in  summer.  The  teacher 
received  a  small  amount  of  money  for  his  services  and 
"boarded  round."  Pupils  were  given  a  limited  amount  of 
instruction  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 

Text-books  were  few  until  after  the  Revolution.  Noah 
Webster's  American  Spelling  Book,  which  appeared  in  1785,  was 
really  the  first  of  our  modern  texts.  The  author  indicated  his 
purpose  in  the  preface,  as  follows:  "To  diffuse  an  uniformity 
and  purity  of  language  in  America,  to  destroy  the  provincial 
prejudices  that  originate  in  trifling  differences  of  dialect  and  pro 
duce  reciprocal  ridicule,  to  promote  the  interests  of  literature 
and  harmony  in  the  United  States  is  the  most  earnest  wish  of  the 
author."  A  New  and  Complete  Arithmetic  Composed  for  the 
Citizens  of  the  United  States,  which  appeared  in  1788,  was  the  first 
arithmetic  produced  by  an  American.  The  author,  Nicolas 
Pike,  devoted  the  greater  part  of  the  book  to  arithmetic  proper 
and  the  remainder  to  plane  geometry,  algebra,  trigonometry, 
and  conic  sections. 

Few  schools  were  to  be  found  in  the  country  districts 
outside  New  England.  In  the  towns  it  was  the  custom 
for  pupils  to  remain  with  a  single  teacher  through  the  sixth 
reader,  when  they  were  admitted  to  the  grammar  school. 
Here  they  were  taught  the  classics.  Grammar  schools 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution      211 

were  generally  supported  by  fees.  Girls  did  not  usually 
continue  their  education  beyond  the  grammar  school. 
Daughters  of  the  well-to-do  families  completed  their  train 
ing  by  learning  to  do  fine  needle-work  or  to  play  on  the 
spinet  or  the  harpsichord.  There  were  no  public  high 
schools.  Private  tutors  were  frequently  employed  in 
wealthy  families.  Night  schools  had  been  established  in 
some  of  the  cities. 

The  need  for  higher  secondary  education  led  to  the  Higher 
founding  of  endowed  academies  by  individuals,  by  towns,  e 
or  by  grants  of  land  from  the  State.  The  first  incorporated 
academy  was  founded  in  Philadelphia  in  1758  through  the 
efforts  of  Franklin.  Academies  increased  rapidly  in  num 
bers,  and  by  1800  over  one  hundred  had  been  established  in 
different  sections  of  the  country.  Among  the  most  noted 
were  Phillips  Academy  at  Andover,  chartered  in  1780,  and 
Phillips  Academy  at  Exeter,  founded  about  the  same  time. 
Nine  years  was  regarded  as  the  proper  age  for  pupils  to 
enter  the  academy.  Discipline  in  all  secondary  schools  was 
strict,  and  the  rod  ordinarily  was  the  only  "aid"  in  teach 
ing.  Courses  of  study  in  the  better  academies  were  classi 
cal,  in  preparation  for  entering  college. 

There  were  graduated  from  the  colleges  of  the  country, 
in  1789,  about  one  hundred  and  seventy  men.  Instruction 
in  the  colleges  was  confined  chiefly  to  Latin,  Greek, 
mathematics  and  logic.  North  Carolina  established  the 
first  State  university  in  1795. 

The  first  medical  school,  afterward  a  department  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  was  founded  at  Philadelphia 
in  1765.  King's  College  and  Harvard  had  also  provided 
for  instruction  in  medicine.  But  the  majority  of  young 
men  who  desired  an  education  in  medicine  were  accus 
tomed  to  become  apprenticed  to  some  city  practitioner. 

Young  men  were  accustomed  to  study  law  in  the  office 
of  a  leading  lawyer.  •  The  first  law  school  was  established 
at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  in  1784. 

A  chair  of  divinity  existed  in  most  of  the  colleges.     No 


212 


American  History 


Literature. 


Scientific 
societies 
and  art. 


definite  organization  was  given,  however,  to  courses  lead 
ing  to  a  preparation  for  the  ministry.  The  first  theological 
school  in  the  country  was  established  in  1784,  in  New  York 
City,  by  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church. 

English  influence  on  thought  grew  weaker  and  French 
influence  stronger  after  the  Revolution.  Few  of  the  men 
who  were  to  create  a  real  National  literature  were  born. 
Washington  Irving  was  but  a  lad  of  six  years,  and  James 
Fenimore  Cooper  was  born  in  1789.  In  1787,  Joel 
Barlow  published  "The  Vision  of  Columbus,"  a  lengthy, 
prosy  production  in  verse.  Philip  Freneau  was  the  real 
lyric  poet  of  the  time.  But  Benjamin  Franklin  was  the 
eighteenth-century  author  of  greatest  distinction.  Besides 
the  two  works  by  which  he  is  best  known,  "  Poor  Richard's 
Almanac"  and  his  Autobiography,  he  had  won  a  notable 
reputation  by  his  state  papers,  scientific  discussions,  and 
lectures.  Americans  excelled  in  political  literature.  The 
state  papers  of  Washington,  John  Adams,  Samuel  Adams, 
Hamilton,  Jefferson,  and  Madison,  are  models  of  their 
kind. 

James  Otis,  Patrick  Henry,  Fisher  Ames,  and  several 
other  men  of  the  time  have  always  been  given  high  rank 
as  orators. 

The  Pennsylvania  Packet,  founded  in  1784,  was  the  first 
daily  newspaper.  In  1785,  the  first  daily  evening  paper, 
The  Philadelphia  Gazette,  was  established.  Newspapers 
were  printed  on  poor  paper.  There  were  no  editorials. 
They  were  made  up  chiefly  of  clippings  from  other  papers, 
a  summary  of  news  from  London  or  Paris,  lengthy  con 
tributions  on  political  questions,  and  advertisements. 

Scientific  societies  in  America  had  their  beginning  in 
"The  American  Philosophical  Society  for  Promoting  Use 
ful  Knowledge,"  which  met  at  Philadelphia.  It  was  in 
corporated  in  1786.  The  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  of  Boston  was  founded  the 'same  year,  and,  in 
1791,  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Association. 

John  Copley,  Benjamin  West,  and  Gilbert  Stuart  were 


The  Formation  of  the  Federal  Constitution      213 

three  Americans  who  gained  reputations  as  painters  in 
England.  They  preferred  to  live  there  because  of  the  poor 
support  given  artists  in  America.  Stuart,  who  received 
$100  for  his  portrait  of  Washington  once  said:  "A  grocer 
will  make  more  by  buying  a  cargo  of  molasses  in  a  day 
than  my  labor  can  bring  me  in  a  year." 

In  America,  as  in  other  countries  of  the  world  at  the   Hospitals 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  was  little  responsi-  prisons, 
bility  felt  for  the  care  of  dependent  classes.     Hospitals  for 
the  sick  existed  in  only  a  few  cities.    Insane  persons  were 
confined  in  cells  underneath  the  ground  floor  and  were 
treated  with  great  brutality.     Prisoners,  of  all  degrees  of 
crime,  were  herded  together  in  dark,  loathsome  dungeons, 
and  their  lives,  through  inhuman  treatment,  were  made 
as  miserable  as  possible.     The  crime  of  debt  brought  more 
people  to  jail  than  any  other. 

A  small  property  qualification  or  payment  of  a  certain  Right  to 
amount  of  taxes  was  required  of  voters  in  a  majority  of  JJofd  aml 
the  States.    While  freedom  in  religious  belief  had  become  office, 
general,  in  a  number  of  the  States  only  Protestants  might 
hold  office.     But  the  Federal  Constitution  did  not  recog 
nize  religious  belief  as  a  qualification  for  office-holding, 
and  the  States  soon  followed  this  example. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  The  attitude  of  Congress  toward  the  calling  of  a  Conven 
tion  at  Philadelphia.     Fiske,  Critical  Period,  2 17-222.     Schouler, 
History  of  the  United  States,  I,  34-39. 

2.  Problems  connected  with  the  appointment  of  delegates  in 
some  of  the  States.     McMaster,  History,  I,  390-399.     Members 
of  the  Convention.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  III,  No.  63. 

3.  The  influence  of  certain  men  in  the  Convention.     Mc 
Master,  History,  I,  418-423.     Fiske,  Critical  Period,  224-229. 
Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  23-27. 

4.  The  "Compromises"  of  the  Constitution.     Read  Article  II, 
Section  8,  Clause  3  and  Section  9,  Clause  1.     Madison,  Am. 
St.  Series,  chap.  8.     McLaughlin,  The  Confederation  and  the 
Constitution,  221-235. 


214  American  History 

5.  The  Constitution  in  the  Virginia  convention.    Patrick  Henry, 
Am.  St.  Series,  chap.  18.     Schouler,  History,  I,  70-75.     Fiske, 
Critical  Period,  334-336. 

6.  Attitude  of  the  New  York  convention  and  why  was  New 
York  a  pivotal  State.     Hamilton,  Am.  St.  Series,  68-82.     Ban 
croft,  History  of   the  United  States,  VI,  455-460.      Schouler, 
History,  I,  66-67   (old  ed.);   77-78  (new  ed.).     Fiske,  Critical 
Period,  340-345.      McLaughlin,  The  Confederation   and    the 
Constitution,  308-312. 

7.  Objections  to  the  Constitution  in  North  Carolina.     Hart, 
Contemporaries,  III,  No.  75. 

8.  What  would  have  been  the  status  of  North  Carolina  and 
Rhode  Island  if  they  had  refused  to  ratify?     Walker,  Making  the 
Nation,  73-75.     Hart,  Formation,  132-133. 

9.  Compare  the  original  method  of  nominating  the  President 
with  that  of  to-day.     James  and  Sanford,  Government  in  State 
and  Nation,  248-255. 

10.  The  first  Presidential  election  and  inauguration  of  the  new 
Government.     Fiske,  Critical  Period,  346-350.     Schouler,  His 
tory,  I,  74-86  (old  ed.);   79-90  (new  ed.). 

11.  The  nation  in    1789;  education,  literature,   religion,  etc. 
McMaster,  History,  II,  1-24;  57-66.     Scudder,  Men  and  Man 
ners  in  America  One  Hundred  Years  Ago.     Earle,  Stage-Coach 
and  Tavern  Days. 

12.  Extent  of  American  and  foreign  shipping  engaged  in  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States  in  1789.     Is  the  showing  for  this 
country  as  favorable  now  ?     Why  ?     Coman,  Industrial  History, 
131,  132. 

13.  Would  you  favor  the  restrictions  on  suffrage  of  1789?     Of 
to-day?     Fiske,  Critical  Period,  69,  70.     Government  in  State 
and  Nation,  48,  49,  142,  143. 

14.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap 
ter  13. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT 
THE  FEDERALISTS  IN  CONTROL 

WASHINGTON  set  out  for  New  York  April  16.  He  wrote  inaugura- 
in  his  diary  of  that  day:  "About  10  o'clock  I  bade  adieu  washing- 
to  Mount  Vernon,  to  private  life  and  to  domestic  felic-  ton- 
ity,  and  with  a  mind  oppressed  with  more  anxious  and 
painful  sensations  than  I  have  words  to  express,  set  out  for 
New  York  with  the  best  disposition  to  render  service  to 
my  country  in  obedience  to  its  call,  but  with  less  hope  of 
answering  its  expectations."  Well  might  he  hesitate  to 
assume  the  burdens  of  the  office  to  which  he  had  been 
elected.  The  Government  must  prove  itself  acceptable 
to  the  people,  and  under  the  guidance  of  a  less  able  leader, 
it  must  have  failed.  The  confidence  of  the  people  in 
Washington  was  expressed  in  the  homage  shown  him  at 
all  stages  of  his  journey.  April  30,  on  the  balcony  of 
Federal  Hall,  in  New  York  City,  the  oath  of  office  was  ad 
ministered.  Washington  then  read  his  inaugural  address 
in  the  presence  of  Congress  assembled  in  the  Senate 
Chamber.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  address,  the  as 
semblage  went  to  St.  Paul's  chapel,  where  prayers  were 
offered.  Formal  addresses  were  presented  to  the  Presi 
dent  by  both  Houses  of  Congress.  This  ceremony,  dis 
continued  when  Jefferson  became  President,  was  in  keep 
ing  with  the  other  formalities  of  the  time. 

The  Federal  treasury  was  empty.    Madison,  on  April  First  legis- 
8,  introduced  a  resolution  into  the  House,  based  on  the 
plan  of  1783,  for  raising  a  national   revenue.     This  led 
to   the   first   tariff   act    (July   4,    1789).     Members   from   sections', 
Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  and  the  other  States  in  which  clause 

215 


216 


American  History 


manufactures  were  developing  wanted  protection  for  their 
industries.  The  act  was  slightly  protective,  but  its  chief 
object  was  to  secure  revenue  for  carrying  on  the  Govern 
ment.  It  provided  specific  duties  on  wines,  teas,  nails, 
salt,  and  twenty-eight  other  articles,  and  an  ad  valorem 
duty  from  five  to  fifteen  per  cent,  on  a  few  articles,  as  paper, 
leather,  and  tinware.  The  average  of  duties  was  about 
eight  and  one-half  per  cent.  The  amount  of  money  col 
lected  from  taxes  on  imports  was  not  sufficient  to  carry  on 


Dollar  of  1794 

the  Government,  and  on  the  recommendation  of  Hamil 
ton  the  rates  were  increased  in  1790  and  1792. 

The  appropriations  by  Congress  for  the  first  year's  ex 
penses  amounted  to  $639,000.  Washington,  as  during  the 
Revolutionary  War,  desired  to  serve  without  salary.  It 
was  agreed,  however,  that  the  President  should  receive 
$25,000  and  the  Vice-President  $5,000  annually. 

It  was  taken  for  granted  by  the  Constitutional  Conven 
tion  that  executive  departments  would  be  formed.  Three 
departments  were  created:  the  Department  of  State, 
then  called  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Department  of  War,  and 
the  Treasury  Department.  Provision  wras  made  for  the 
office  of  Attorney-General,  although  this  office  was  not,  for 
many  years,  considered  an  executive  department.  The 
former  Post-Office  was  continued,  and  it  was  made  a 


Organization  of  the  New  Government          217 

department  in  1794.  Through  the  appointment  by 
Washington  and  confirmation  by  the  Senate,  Thomas 
Jefferson  was  made  Secretary  of  State,  Alexander  Hamil 
ton,  Secretary  of  Treasury;  Henry  Knox,  Secretary  of  War, 
and  Edmund  Randolph,  Attorney-General. 

Although  not  authorized  by  the  Constitution,  Washington 
early  began  the  custom  of  calling  these  four  men  together  from 
time  to  time  to  confer  with  him  on  public  questions.  Later 
Presidents  have  preserved  this  practice  of  calling  their  Cabinets 
into  conference.  While  the  President  is  not  obliged  to  take  the 
advice  of  his  Cabinet,  their  views  have  usually  great  weight  with 
him. 

By  an  act  of  September  24,  1789,  Congress  proceeded  Organiza- 

Ai      T-.    i       i   T    v   •  ^-       i  •  /-.        j.-      tionofthe 

to  organize  the  Federal  Judiciary  as  outlined  in  the  Consti-  judiciary, 

tution.     This  act  provided  that  the  Supreme  Court  should   Article  ^l< 

r.       .  ...  T^,  section  1, 

consist  of  a  Chief  Justice  and  five  associate  justices.  Four  clause  i. 
Circuit  Courts  and  thirteen  District  Courts  were  also  cre 
ated,  and  their  functions  as  inferior  courts  were  defined. 
John  Jay,  of  New  York,  a  man  of  sterling  character  and 
strong  convictions  was  appointed  Chief  Justice.  Regular 
Circuit  Court  judges  were  not  then  provided  for. 

The  first  Congress  was  called  upon  to  consider  some  First  ten 
three  hundred  propositions  to  amend  the  Constitution.   ^t-fto 
Of   these,  more   than  one-third  were  submitted   by  the  the  Consti- 
States  at  the  time  of  ratification.     Twelve  amendments  l 
finally  received   the   requisite   two-thirds   votes   of   both 
Houses  of  Congress.     Ten  became  a  part  of  the  Constitu 
tion  in  1791,  having  been  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of 
three-fourths  of  the  States.     These  ten  amendments  have 
been  called  "The  Bill  of  Rights";  for  they  provide,  in 
general,  for  the  preservation   (against  encroachment  by 
the  National  Government)  upon  such  rights  as  the  freedom 
of  religion,  and  of  speech,  and  that  over  private  property, 
rights  which  had  been  enumerated  in  the  "Bills  of  Rights" 
of  the  State  constitutions. 

The  Constitution  provides  (Article  III,  Section  II,  Clause  1)  that    Eleventh 
the  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  extend  to  contro-    ^^d~ 
versies  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State,  and  between 


218 


American  History 


a  State  and  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  a  foreign  State.  These  pro 
visions  were  intended  doubtless  to  apply  only  to  suits  in  which  a 
State  should  attempt,  as  plaintiff,  to  secure  justice  in  a  Federal 
Court.  But,  contrary  to  expectation,  suits  were  early  brought 
against  some  of  the  States'by  citizens  of  other  States.  In  the  no 
table  case  of  Chisholm  vs.  the  State  of  Georgia  (in  1793),  Chisholm, 
a  citizen  of  North  Carolina,  began  action  against  the  State  of 
Georgia  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  That  Court 
interpreted  the  clause  as  applying  to  cases  in  which  a  State  is 
defendant,  as  well  as  to  those  in  which  it  is  plaintiff.  The  de 
cision  was  received  with  disfavor  by  the  States,  and  Congress  pro 
posed  the  Eleventh  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  which  was 
ratified  in  1798  and  reads  as  follows:  "The  judicial  power  of  the 
United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or 
equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States, 
by  citizens  of  another  State  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign 
State." 

When  Alexander  Hamilton,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two, 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  he  had  already  ac 
quired  a  notable  reputation  as  a  writer  on  the  problems  of 
government  and  as  a  lawyer.  Although  fully  aware  of  the 
difficulties  to  be  met,  he  did  not  hesitate  in  accepting  the 
burdens  of  the  office  at  the  meager  salary  of  $3,500  a  year. 
Shortly  after  his  appointment,  Congress  requested  Ham 
ilton  to  prepare  a  report  on  the  public  credit.  This  led 
to  the  formation  of  his  financial  policy.  The  carrying  out 
of  his  recommendations  placed  the  National  credit  on  a 
solid  foundation. 

Hamilton  showed  that  the  National  indebtedness  was 
about  $54,000,000,  including  principal  and  arrears  of  in 
terest.  Of  this  sum,  $12,000,000  was  owed  in  Europe, 
chiefly  to  the  French  Government.  In  his  first  report  on 
the  public  credit  (1790),  he  proposed  that  these  obliga 
tions  against  the  Government  should  be  paid  in  full. 
While  there  was  no  objection  made  to  paying  the  foreign 
debt,  a  heated  debate  took  place,  in  Congress,  over  the 
proposition  to  pay  the  remainder,  or  "domestic  debt." 
These  certificates  of  indebtedness  had  depreciated  so  much 
that  they  were  worth  only  about  one-fifth  of  their  face  value. 
Speculators  had  been  buying  the  certificates,  and  it  was 


Organization  of  the  New  Government          219 


argued  that  they  and  not  the  original  owners  would  profit  by 
the  measure.  But  Hamilton  insisted  that  the  credit  of  the 
Government  could  be  established  only  by  redeeming  its 
promises  to  pay  at  full  face  value.  Hamilton's  plan  tri 
umphed,  and  a  bill  was 
passed  by  Congress 
providing  for  the  pay 
ment  of  both  the  for 
eign  and  domestic 
debts. 

The  proposal  by  Assump- 
Hamilton  that  the  Na-  s™te 
tional   Government  debts  and 

location  of 

should  assume  the  un-  the  Capi- 
paid  debts  of  the  in-  tah 
dividual  States  which 
had  been  incurred  in 
support  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  met  with  bitter 
protest.  The  total  of 
these  debts  finally 
fixed  upon  was  $21,- 
000,000.  Massachu 
setts,  Connecticut,  and 
South  Carolina  had  the  largest  debts.  With  the  excep 
tion  of  South  Carolina,  the  Southern  States  had  already 
paid  off  the  greater  part  of  their  debts  and  were  op 
posed  to  the  plan.  New  England  and  the  Middle  States 
with  the  exception  of  Pennsylvania,  favored  assump 
tion.  The  Representatives  from  North  Carolina  now  ap 
peared  in  Congress  in  time  to  defeat  the  measure  in  the 
House. 

Hamilton  saw  in  the  discussion  over  the  permanent 
location  of  the  Capital,  the  opportunity  to  save  his  plan 
for  assumption.  The  choice  had  narrowed  down  to  a 
site  on  the  Delaware  River  in  Pennsylvania,  or  to  one  on  the 
Potomac.  Finally,  a  bargain  was  agreed  upon  in  which 


Alexander  Hamilton 

he  painting  by  John  Trumbull,  1792 


220  American  History 

Hamilton  offered  to  secure  enough  Northern  votes  for  the 
Potomac  site,  providing  Jefferson  would  get  Virginia  votes 
to  carry  the  assumption  of  the  State  debts.  Both  measures 
were  carried.  For  ten  years,  the  Capital  was  to  be  at 
Philadelphia  and  then  to  be  located  in  a  district  ten  miles 
square  on  the  Potomac  at  some  spot  to  be  selected  by 
Washington. 

The  excise.  Some  means  must  be  found  to  pay  the  debts.  Hamil 
ton  proposed,  in  a  second  report  on  the  public  credit,  pre 
sented  at  the  close  of  the  year  1790,  an  increase  in  the 
import  duties  on  distilled  liquors  and  also  an  excise  upon 
spirituous  liquors  distilled  in  the  United  States.  An  ex 
cise,  to  be  laid  by  the  National  Government,  was  especially 
objectionable  to  many.  It  was  regarded  in  the  same  light 
as  the  stamp  duties  before  the  Revolution.  It  tended, 
they  thought,  to  give  too  great  powers  of  taxation  to  the 
Federal  Government.  In  spite  of  great  opposition,  the 
measure  was  passed.  One  member  suggested  that  it 
would  be  like  "drinking  down  the  National  debt." 
The  The  plan  for  a  United  States  Bank,  advocated  in  a 

states?  special  report  (December  13,  1790),  is  even  more  note- 
Bank,  worthy.  Hamilton  had  recommended  such  an  institution 
to  Robert  Morris  during  the  Revolution.  He  now  urged 
that  a  bank  would  become  the  means  of  increasing  the  cir 
culating  medium,  and  at  the  same  time  give  a  safe  and 
uniform  currency  to  the  country,  through  the  issue  of 
bank-notes;  and  that  the  Government  would  be  able  to 
borrow  money  and  carry  on  other  financial  affairs  through 
the  bank  with  greater  facility.  Besides,  the  men  who 
might  subscribe  for  the  stock  would  thus  become  inter 
ested  in  the  Government. 

Article  I,  Madison,  as  the  leader  of  a  strong  minority  party  in  the 
House  of  Representatives,  asserted  that  Congress  did  not 
possess  the  power  of  establishing  such  a  corporation,  since 
it  was  not  "expressly"  granted  by  the  Constitution. 
Hamilton  maintained  that  the  power  \vas  implied  in 
that  clause  which  authorizes  Congress  "to  make  all  laws 


Organization  of  the  New  Government          221 

which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  exe 
cution  the  foregoing  powers  .  .  .  vested  by  the  Constitu 
tion  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States."  The  bill, 
which  finally  passed  both  Houses  of  Congress,  provided 
for  the  incorporation  of  a  bank  for  twenty  years  with  a 
capital  of  $10,000,000.  The  Government  might  subscribe 
for  an  amount  not  exceeding  $2,000,000.  Payment  for 
a  large  amount  of  the  stock  was  to  be  made  in  Government 
bonds.  The  bank  was  to  be  used  as  a  place  of  deposit  for 
Government  funds  and  to  aid  it  in  borrowing,  collecting, 
and  paying  out  money. 

Because  of  the  objections  to  the  measure,  Washington,   strict  and 
before  signing  the  bill,  referred  it  to  his  Cabinet  for  their  s°?uction~ 
written  opinions  on  its  constitutionality.     The  replies  sub 
mitted  by  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  are  noteworthy.     They 
set  forth  definitely  the  two  opposing  views  on  the  inter 
pretation  of  the  Constitution  which  have  so  often  been  con 
tended  for  in  the  course  of  our  history.     Jefferson  argued, 
as  Madison  had  done,  that  the  incorporation  of  a  bank 
would  be  unconstitutional  and  that  a  bank  was  neither  a 
" necessary"  nor  a  "proper"  agent  "for  carrying  into  exe 
cution"  the  "enumerated  powers"    of   the    Constitution. 
He  stood  for  what  is  called  the  doctrine  of  "strict"  con 
struction.     Hamilton,  in  his  answer,   held  that  all   con 
venient  "means"  might  be  employed  by  the  Government 
which  were  "required  in  the  execution"  of  powers  granted 
by  the  Constitution.     He  argued  that  the  creation  of  a  Article  I, 
bank  was  constitutional  since  it  was  related  to  the  powers  clauses 
of  collecting  taxes  and  borrowing  money.     Thus  he  de-   1«  2- 
clared  in  favor  of  the  "broad"  construction  of  the  Consti 
tution.     Washington,   after  some  hesitation,   signed   the 
bill.     The   Bank   was   established   in  Philadelphia   with 
branches  in  New  York,  Baltimore,  and  six  other  cities. 

This  doctrine  of  the  implied  powers  of  the  Constitution  was  in  Bryce, 

turn  to  be  adopted  by  the  Supreme  Court  and  stated  in  the  fa-  American 

mous  decisions  of  John  Marshall.     James  Bryce  has  well  said:  We^th°n 

"The  interpretation  which  has  thus  stretched  the  Constitution  i,  390,' 


222 


A  merica  / 1  History 


The  mint. 


Report  on 
manu 
factures. 


Rise  of 

political 

parties. 


to  cover  powers  once  undreamt  of  may  be  deemed  a  dangerous 
resource.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  even  the  constitu 
tions  we  call  rigid  must  make  their  choice  between  being  bent 
or  being  broken.  The  Americans  have  more  than  once  bent 
their  Constitution  in  order  that  they  might  not  be  forced  to 
break  it." 

Congress,  on  Hamilton's  recommendation,  also  passed 
an  act  for  the  establishment  of  a  mint.  The  free  coinage 
of  both  gold  and  silver  at  a  ratio  of  15  to  1  was  adopted, 
i.  c.,  the  weight  of  pure  metal  in  a  silver  dollar  was  fifteen 
times  as  much  as  the  pure  metal  in  a  gold  dollar. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1791,  Hamilton  made  the  most 
elaborate  of  his  reports,  that  on  manufactures.  The  argu 
ments  for  the  protection  of  American  industries,  through 
a  tax  on  imports,  stands  to-day  as  one  of  the  best  presenta 
tions  ever  made  in  behalf  of  the  protective  system.  The 
act  of  1792,  which  provided  for  a  slight  increase  in  duties, 
followed,  in  the  main,  his  suggestions. 

As  we  have  seen,  two  parties  developed  over  the  ratifi 
cation  of  the  Constitution.  After  the  inauguration  of 
the  new  Government,  the  Anti-Federalists  as  a  party 
disappeared.  But  the  adoption  of  Hamilton's  financial 
plans  was  the  chief  cause  for  the  formation  of  two  well- 
organized  political  parties.  Hamilton  favored  a  strong 
central  Government.  The  policy  of  loose  construction 
which  he  advocated  would  deprive  the  State  governments 
of  many  powers.  Many  persons  then,  as  to-day,  viewed 
with  alarm  this  growing  authority  of  the  central  Govern 
ment  and  Jefferson  declared  that  the  Government  was 
drifting  toward  a  monarchy.  He  believed  that  Hamilton 
was  building  up  a  monarchical  party  by  giving  to  certain 
members  of  Congress,  which  the  Secretary  of  State  called 
the  "  corrupt  squadron,"  financial  privileges  in  return  for 
their  support.  In  the  ceremonial  connected  with  the 
sittings  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  in  the  secret  sessions  of 
the  Senate,  Jefferson  and  his  adherents  saw  also  the  death 
of  Republican  institutions. 

These  followers  of  Jefferson,  chief  among  whom  was 


Organization  of  the  New  Government          223 

Madison,  were  soon  organized,  and  called  themselves  the   Repubii- 
Kepublican   Party.     They  were  called  by  their  enemies   federalists. 
''Democratic/'     They  insisted  on  the  strict  interpretation 
of  the  Constitution,  and' were  most  numerous  in  the  agri 
cultural  States.    Those  who  favored  the  views  of  Hamilton 
clung  to  the  name  " Federalist"  for  their  party.     They 
were  chiefly  in  the  commercial  States.     Another  notable 
difference  between  the  party  views  grew  out  of  the  atti 
tude  of  the  two  leaders  toward  the  people.    Hamilton  had 


The 


little  confidence  in  the  ability  of  the  mass  of  the  people 
to  govern,  and  held  that  government  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  educated  and  property-owning  classes. 
Jefferson  believed  in  the  common  people  and  in  their 
capacity  for  self-government.  He  had  no  fears  of  such 
uprisings  as  that  led  by  Shays,  and  declared  with  regard 
to  it:  "Whenever  our  affairs  go  obviously  wrong,  the  good 
sense  of  the  people  will  interpose  and  set  them  right." 


224 


American  History 


Washing 
ton  re- 
elected, 
1792. 


From  the  sessions  of  the  Cabinet,  where,  as  Jefi'ersori 
said,  he  and  Hamilton  were  arrayed  against  each  other 
like  "two  cocks  in  a  pit,"  the  contest  passed  to  the  news 
papers.  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  became  personal  ene 
mies.  Although  the  attacks  on  Hamilton  were  largely  ill- 
founded,  it  is  fortunate  that  a  party  was  then  brought  into 
existence  which  held,  as  its  leading  principle,  belief  in  the 
people. 

As  the  time  for  the  second  Presidential  election  ap 
proached,  Washington,  who  had  grown  weary  of  the  at 
tacks  on  his  administration,  would  gladly  have  retired  to 
the  quiet  of  Mount  Vernon.  Urged  by  the  leaders  of  both 
parties,  he  again  allowed  his  name  to  be  used  and  was 
unanimously  reflected.  The  contest  between  the  parties 
came  in  the  choice  of  a  Vice-President.  John  Adams,  the 
Federalist  candidate,  was  reflected,  having  received  the 
votes  of  seventy-seven  electors.  Fifty  electors  voted  for 
George  Clinton  of  the  Republican  party.  The  Repub 
licans,  however,  succeeded  in  electing  a  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate 
remained  under  the  control  of  the  Federalists. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Relation  of  Washington  to  the  Senate.     Hart,  Contempo 
raries,  III,  No.  79. 

2.  Washington's  Cabinet;    departments  since  organized  and 
chief  functions  of  each.     Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  88-93. 
Fiske,  Civil  Government,  236-240;  250-252.     James  and  San- 
ford's  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  283-297 

3.  Compare  with  the  English  Cabinet;  appointment,  authority. 
Government  in  State  and  Nation,  178-180. 

4.  Organization  of  the  Federal  Judiciary.     Walker,  Making  of 
the  Nation,  97,  98.     Hart,  Formation,  145,  146.     Government 
in  State  and  Nation,  303-305. 

5.  Process  of  amending  the  Constitution  and  nature  of  the  first 
ten    amendments.     Walker,    Making    of    the    Nation,    74-77. 
Government  in  State  and  Nation,  337-341. 

6.  Compare  the  methods  of  raising  revenue  under  the  Consti- 


Organization  of  the  New  Government          225 

tution  and  under  the  Confederation.     Government  in  State  and 
Nation,  182. 

7.  Hamilton's   Financial   Policy.     Hamilton,  Am.  St.  Series, 
chaps.  5  and  6.     Madison,  Am.  St.  Series,  144-150  (new  ed.). 
Hart,    Formation,   146-151.     Walker,  Making    of   the  Nation, 
78-86. 

8.  Formation  of  political  parties.     Hamilton,  Am.  St.  Series, 
chap.  7.  Jefferson,  Am.  St.  Series,  chap.  8.     Madison,  Am.  St 
Series,  chap.  12.    Hart,  Formation,  155-156.     Walker,  Making 
of  the  Nation,  94-97. 

9.  The  slave  question  in  the  First  Congress.     Madison,  Am. 
St.  Series,  152-164  (new  ed.).     Hart,  Formation,  151,  152. 

10.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  14. 

11.  Historical    fiction.     James   Lane  Allen,    Choir   Invisible 
(Kentucky).     James  K.  Paulding,  Westward  Ho!  (Kentucky). 


CHAPTER  XV 

FOREIGN  RELATIONS,  1793-1801 

The  PARTY  contests  became  more  embittered  because  of  the 

Revolution  relation  of  the  United  States  to  European  affairs  after 
and  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  in  1789.  For  a 

quarter  of  a  century  foreign  relations  were  to  constitute 
a  leading  feature  in  our  history.  France,  as  we  have  seen 
(p.  168),  aided  America  in  gaining  independence.  The 
news  of  the  proclamation  of  the  French  Republic  (Sep 
tember  22,  1792),  and  the  execution  of  King  Louis  XVI 
(January  21,  1793),  were  enthusiastically  received  in 
America.  This  feeling  of  joy  was  heightened  when  it 
was  learned  early  in  April,  1793,  that  France  had  also 
declared  war  against  England. 

Prociama-  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1778,  France  expected  the 
Neutrality,  United  States  to  defend  the  French  West  India  Islands 
1793.  against  attack  and  to  grant  France  certain  privileges  in 

our  ports  not  granted  other  nations.  Appreciating  that 
the  very  existence  of  the  nation  might  depend  on  keeping 
out  of  the  struggle,  Washington  determined  that  the 
United  States  should  pursue  an  impartial  course  toward 
both  England  and  France.  His  Proclamation  of  Neutral 
ity  was  issued,  therefore,  on  April  22,  1793.  It  is  classed 
to-day  as  one  of  the  most  important  documents  of  the 
period.  The  United  States  was  thenceforth  to  keep  clear 
of  European  entanglements. 

Genet.  Its  enforcement  was  difficult  because  of  the  actions  of 

Genet,  the  French  Minister,  who  came  to  Charleston  two 
weeks  before  the  Proclamation  was  issued.  Counting  on 

226 


Foreign  Relations 


227 


American  sympathy  and  aid  for  France,  he  fitted  out  four 
privateers,  which  captured  a  number  of  English  vessels. 
After  ten  days  he  set  out  for  Philadelphia.  Ovations  were 
given  him  on  the  way  and  in  that  city.  Democratic  clubs 
were  formed,  modelled  after  those  in  Paris.  Angered  at 
his  treatment  by  Washington,  who  insisted  on  the  principle 
of  neutrality,  Genet  threatened  an  appeal  to  the  people. 
Disregarding  the  request  of  Jefferson  and  his  own  promise 
not  to  do  so,  he  fitted  out  a  captured  vessel  and  sent  it  to 
sea.  His  recall  was  requested  by  Washington.  The  party 
by  which  he  was  appointed  had  fallen,  and  the  French 
Government,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  more  radical  Robes 
pierre  faction,  sent  Fauchet  as  his  successor. 

The  secret  plans  of  Genet  relative  to  the  West  were  of  no  less  French 
moment.  Because  of  the  closing  of  the  Mississippi  by  Spain  Plans  in 
(p.  192),  and  the  seeming  disregard  of  their  interests  by  the 
Government,  there  was  general  discontent  among  the  men  of 
the  West.  Genet  was  secretly  instructed,  by  his  Government,  to 
make  use  of  this  disaffection  and  enlist  men  to  conquer,  for  France, 
Louisiana,  the  Floridas,  and  Canada.  Before  leaving  Charleston, 
he  arranged  for  an  expedition  against  Florida  and  similar  plans 
for  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  and  Louisiana  were  set  on  foot 
by  him  at  Philadelphia.  These  plots  were  revived  by  Fauchet 
and  by  Adet,  the  successors  of  Genet. 

The    non-enforcement    of   the  terms  of   the  treaty  of  Difficulties 
1783  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  was  ™eat 
still  under  discussion  by  both  nations.     In  June,   1793,   Britain. 
Great  Britain  ordered  the  seizure  of  neutral  vessels  carry 
ing  provisions  to  French  ports.     The  French  Government 
had  already  passed  a  similar  decree  relative  to  the  ports  of 
Great  Britain.     This  policy,  which  struck  so  heavily  at 
American  shipping,  was  based  on  the  doubtful  claim  that 
"  provisions  were  contraband  of  war/'     Upon  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities,  France  threw  open  her  ports  in  the  West 
Indies  to  trade  with  neutral  ships.     According  to  the  "  rule 
of  1756,"  by  which  Great  Britain  did  not  consider  herself 
bound,  trade  which  was  forbidden  a  neutral  in  time  of 
peace  could  not  be  allowed  that  nation  in  time  of  war. 


228  American  History 

Great  Britain,  however,  proceeded  to  enforce  this  rule 
against  American  trade  with  the  French  colonies.  Some 
three  hundred  American  vessels  were  seized  and  brought 
into  British  West  Indian  ports,  by  March  7,  1794,  and 
their  passengers  and  seamen  were  brutally  treated. 

With  even  greater  arrogance,  Great  Britain  claimed  the 
right  to  stop  and  search  American  ships  for  seamen  of 
British  birth  in  order  to  impress  them  into  her  navy.  Upon 
the  theory,  "once  an  Englishman  always  an  Englishman," 
sailors,  English  by  birth,  but  who  had  become  naturalized 
Americans  were  impressed.  Even  sailors  born  in  the 
United  States  were  seized.  With  the  feeling  excited  by  these 
acts,  war  seemed  inevitable.  Congress,  in  March,  1794, 
voted  an  embargo  for  thirty  days  on  shipping  in  the  ports 
of  the  United  States.  It  was  renewed  for  a  month  and 
bills  were  passed  providing  for  the  fortification  of  some 
of  the  harbors  and  for  increasing  the  navy. 

Jay's  But  in  spite  of  the  clamor  for  war,  Washington  deter- 

i7^5.y>  mined,  if  possible,  to  avert  it.  He  selected  John  Jay,  then 
Chief  Justice,  as  Envoy  Extraordinary  to  open  negotia 
tions  with  Great  Britain  for  the  execution  of  the  treaty  of 
1783  and  for  making  a  treaty  of  commerce.  After  four 
months  of  negotiation,  in  London,  between  Lord  Gren- 
ville  and  Jay  a  treaty  was  drawn  up  (November  19,  1794). 
According  to  its  terms,  the  British  Government  agreed  to 
evacuate  the  posts  by  June,  1796.  Joint  commissions 
were  to  settle  the  amount  of  the  claims  growing  out  of  the 
non-payment  of  debts  due  British  subjects  and  the  seizure 
of  American  ships.*  A  general  commercial  treaty  was 
agreed  upon — an  advantage  to  our  merchants  and  ship 
owners. 

Nothing  was  said  about  an  indemnity  for  the  loss  of 
the  negroes  and  no  mention  was  made  of  impressment. 
The  British  Government  refused  to  yield  its  position  on 

*  Three  million  dollars  was  agreed  upon  by  treaty  (1802)  as  the  amount 
due  British  subjects.  A  commission  of  five,  in  1804,  settled  on  $11,000,000 
as  the  amount  due  American  claimants  for  the  capture  of  their  ships. 


Foreign  Relations  229 

neutral  trade.  The  treaty  passed  the  Senate  with  the  exact 
number  of  votes  necessary  to  make  the  required  two- 
thirds.  The  whole  country  was  aroused  when  the  terms 
became  known.  In  many  cities  Jay  was  burned  in  effigy 
and  Hamilton,  while  defending  the  treaty,  was  stoned  at  a 
public  meeting  in  New  York  City.  The  British  flag  was 
dragged  through  the  streets  at  Charleston  and  burned  be 
fore  the  door  of  the  British  Consul.  A  violent  debate  en 
sued  in  the  House  of  Representatives  over  the  bill  pro 
viding  for  the  money  needed  to  execute  the  terms  of  the 
treaty.  Finally,  the  House,  by  a  vote  of  51  to  48,  passed  the 
appropriation  bill.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  were  doubt 
less  the  best  which  could  be  secured  at  that  time.  Re 
jection  would  have  meant  an  almost  certain  war,  a  war 
which  would  have  crippled  the  nation.  The  opening 
of  the  Mississippi  by  Spain  and  the  settlement  of  the 
Indian  troubles  of  the  West  were  intimately  connected 
also  with  the  acceptance  of  the  Jay  treaty. 

Fearing  the  alienation  of  the  West  because  of  the  long  Treaty 
standing  troubles  with   Spain   (p.    192),  Thomas  Pinck-  g^ 
ney,  in  1794,  was  sent  to  Spain  for  the  purpose  of  making  i?95. 
a   new   treaty.     Knowing  of  the   relations   about   to  be 
established    by   the    parties    to    the    Jay    treaty,    Spain 
thought  it  desirable  to  win  the  friendship  of  the  United 
States.     On  October  27,   1795,  a  treaty  was  signed  by 
which  America  gained  all  that  was  asked:  the  free  navi 
gation  of  the  Mississippi;   the  right  to  deposit  goods  at 
New  Orleans;*  and   the  parallel  of  31°  as  the  Florida 
boundary  line. 

The  advance  of  settlers  into  the  territory  ceded  by  the  Indian 
treaty  of  1783  was  resisted  by  the  Indians  and  attacks  upon  Jn°eubles  in 
the  outlying  settlements  were  frequent. f     American  offi-  North- 
cers  who  made  offers  of  peace  were  answered  by  some  of  the  west' 

*  A  place  of  deposit  was  necessary  in  order  that  goods  brought  down 
the  Mississippi  on  river  boats  might  be  transferred  to  ocean-going  vessels. 

t  The  early  settlements  in  Ohio  were  noted  on  pages  190,  191.  Three 
other  settlements  were  made  on  the  Muskingum  in  1790. 


230 


American  History 


chiefs  of  the  North-western  tribes:  "The  English  com 
mandant  at  Detroit  is  our  father  and  we  cannot  answer 
without  consulting  him."  The  enormities  of  the  savages 
becoming  more  frequent,  the  Government,  in  1790  sent 
a  force  against  them  led  by  General  Harmar.  Under  the 


Fort  Washington  (Cincinnati) 

leadership  of  the  famous  Chief,  "Little  Turtle,"  the  Indians 
were  victorious.  An  expedition  the  following  year  under 
General  St.  Clair  met  a  like  fate. 

The  command  was  then  entrusted  to  General  Anthony 
Wayne.  Setting  out  from  Fort  Washington  (Cincinnati), 
he  reached  the  rapids  of  the  Maumee  in  August,  1794. 
There  the  desperate  battle  of  "Fallen  Timbers"  was 
fought  in  which  the  Indians  were  utterly  defeated.  In 
the  treaty  at  Greenville  the  next  year,  they  agreed  to 
surrender  their  claims  to  the  greater  part  of  the  present 
Ohio.  With  the  promise  of  security,  settlers  began  at 
once  to  go  into  this  territory  in  ever-increasing  num 
bers. 


Forciijn  Relations 


231 


.itniL^ 


~-   /TTt^Lvml  }' 

Ft^erl.   \     \  \  /I       V7 

if      /     ,i/"        \     .  ._!w,xd''""VH 


Meantime,  hatred  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Western  Whiskey 
communities,    especially  of  Pennsylvania,  for   the   excise   tton.^TO 
law,  gave  rise  to  serious  disturbances.     Because  of  inade 
quate  facilities  for  transportation,  Western  men,  in  order 
to  get  their  produce  to  market  most  readily,  reduced  the 
grain  to  whiskey.     Their  opposition  to  the  tax  on  distilled 

spirits  finally  led  to 
open  rebellion  in 
1794.  Collectors  of 
revenue  were  driven 
from  their  homes, 
mails  were  seized, 
and  the  United 
States  Marshal  was 
fired  upon.  About 
6,000  men  assem 
bled  at "  Braddock's 
Field  "  and  marched 
through  the  streets 
of  Pittsburg  to 
frighten  the  inhab 
itants.  Governor 

Mifflin  of  Pennsylvania  did  nothing,  and  Washington 
determined  to  enforce  the  law.  He  called  out  13,000 
militia.  This  army,  commanded  by  Governor  Henry 
Lee  of  Virginia,  marched  across  the  mountains  to  the 
scene  of  the  uprising,  but  met  with  no  resistance,  for  the 
leaders  had  fled.  The  prompt  suppression  of  this  insur 
rection  served  to  demonstrate  that  the  National  Govern 
ment  had  become  powerful  enough  to  enforce  its  laws. 

Declining  to  be  a  candidate  for  a  third  term,  Washing-   Washing 
ton,  in  a  masterly  state  paper  (September  17,  1796),  made  Farewell 
an  appeal  for  the  highest  standards  for  the  nation.     He  Address. 
urged  a  "cordial,  habitual,  and  immovable  attachment" 
to  national  union.     Americans  were  to  observe  good  faith 
and  justice  toward  all  nations  and  keep  "clear  of  per 
manent  alliances  with  any  portion  of  the  foreign  world." 


VIRGINIA 


Wayne's  Campaign  and  Treaty  of  Greenville 


232 


American  History 


John 

Adams 

elected 

President, 

1796. 


John 

Adams. 


Public  opinion,  he  wrote,  should  be  "enlightened"  and 
public  credit  "cherished." 

John  Adams  and  Thomas  Pinckney  were  selected  as  the 
candidates  of  the  Federalists  for  President  and  Vice-Presi 
dent.     The  Republicans  gave  their  support  to  Thomas 
Jefferson  and 
Aaron  Burr.  Of 
the  132  electoral 
votes,  Adams  re 
ceived    71   and 
was  elected  Pres 
ident,   and  Jef 
ferson    received 
68,  the  next  high 
est  number,  and 
was  elected  Vice- 
President. 

John  Adams 
had  already 
served  his  coun 
try  ably  and  with 
honor.  He  was 
prominent  as  a 
leader  in  Massa- 
chus  etts  in 
bringing  on  the 
Revolution;  was 

a  member  of  both  Continental  congresses,  became  Minister 
to  France  and  then  to  Holland;  in  1785  was  made  Minis 
ter  to  England;  and  was  twice  Vice-President.  Always 
upright  in  his  relations  with  his  associates,  he  failed,  at 
times,  because  of  lack  of  tact,  jealousy  of  his  rivals,  and 
dislike  of  advice.  He  soon  found  that  he  had  made  a 
mistake  in  retaining  Washington's  Cabinet,  for  they  were 
under  the  control  of  Hamilton,  who  was  his  enemy.  Out 
of  touch  with  his  Cabinet,  Adams  was  early  called  upon  to 
adjust  the  troubles  with  France,  which  had  become  serious. 


John  Adams 

From  a  copy  by  Jane  Stuart,  about  1874,  of  a  painting  by  her 

father,  Gilbert  Stuart,  about  1800— in  the 

possession  of  Henry  Adams 


Foreign  Relations  233 

The  negotiation  and  ratification  of  the  Jay  treaty  by  the  Unfriendly 
United  States  was  considered  by  France  a  grave  offence.  France. 
Because  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  principle  that  "free  ships 
make  free  goods"  and  of  the  privileges  secured  to  France 
by  the  treaty  of  1778,  that  nation  now  declared  its  alliance 
with  the  United  States  at  an  end.  American  shipping  was 
subjected  to  still  greater  injury  by  French  war  vessels,  and 
the  French  minister  to  this  country  was  recalled.  Mean 
time,  Washington  determined  to  send  Charles  C.  Pinck- 
ney  to  take  the  place  of  James  Monroe  as  Minister  to 
France.* 

The  Directory,  piqued  at  the  attitude  of  the  United 
States  and  exalted  by  the  victories  of  Napoleon  in  Italy, 
not  only  refused  to  receive  Pinckney,  but  ordered  him  to 
leave  France.  News  of  this  insult  reached  America  shortly 
after  the  inauguration  of  President  Adams.  In  his  message 
to  Congress,  called  in  special  session,  he  asserted  that  the 
world  should  be  convinced  that  "we  are  not  a  degraded 
people  .  .  .  fitted  to  be  the  miserable  instruments  of  for 
eign  influence  and  regardless  of  national  honor,  character 
and  influence."  He  was  determined,  if  possible,  to  pre 
vent  war.  A  commission,  consisting  of  C.  C.  Pinckney, 
John  Marshall,  and  Elbridge  Gerry,  was  appointed  to 
make  another  effort  to  negotiate. 

Upon  their  arrival  in  Paris,  they  were  refused  official  The 
recognition  by  the  French  Government  and  instead,  they  an^[rYt  Z 
were  waited  upon  by  three  secret  agents  sent  by  Talley 
rand,    then   Minister   of    Foreign   Affairs.     These   men, 
called  in  the  dispatches   to  the  American   Government 
Messrs.  "X,  Y,  and  Z,"  demanded   $250,000  for  the  Di 
rectors  and  Ministers  as  the  price  of  an  audience.     Said 
X:  "Gentlemen,  you  do  not  speak  to  the  point;  it  is  money; 
it  is  expected  you  will  offer  money."     "No,  no,  no;  not  a 
sixpence"  was  the  reply.     The  attempt  to  carry  on  a  sep- 

*  Washington  thought  that  Monroe  had  not  pushed  the  claims  against 
the  French  Government,  for  depredations  upon  American  commerce, 
with  enough  vigor. 


234  American  History 

arate  negotiation  with  Gerry,  who  was  a  Republican  was 
also  a  failure.  The  President,  April  3,  1798,  laid  the 
X,  Y,  Z  dispatches  before  Congress.  The  effect  produced 
was  magical.  War  measures  were  quickly  passed  in  both 
Houses  of  Congress.  An  army  was  organized  and  Wash 
ington  was  given  the  command.  New  vessels  were  added 
to  the  navy,  and  the  Navy  Department  was  organized. 
Treaties  between  the  two  nations  were  declared  to  be  at 
an  end. 

War  with  President  Adams  now  notified  Congress  that  he  would 
imminent.  "never  send  another  Minister  to  France  without  assur 
ances  that  he  would  be  received,  respected,  and  honored 
as  the  representative  of  a  great,  free,  powerful,  and  in 
dependent  nation."  Public  opinion  generally  sanctioned 
the  measures  of  Congress.  The  stirring  words  of  ''Hail 
Columbia,"  one  of  the  numerous  songs  composed  at  the 
time,  seemed  best  to  express  the  patriotic  fervor  of  the 
people.  On  February  9,  1799,  the  Constellation,  under 
Captain  Truxton,  after  a  hard  fight,  captured  the  French 
frigate  L'Insurgente.  This  and  other  engagements  reflected 
great  credit  upon  the  infant  navy. 

Peaceful  Talleyrand  hastened  to  say  in  a  message  to  William 

restored!  Vans  Murray,  American  Minister  to  the  Netherlands,  that 
France  was  now  ready  to  receive  an  envoy  from  the  United 
States  with  the  respect  due  to  the  representative  of  a  free, 
independent,  and  powerful  nation.  President  Adams 
seized  this  opportunity  to  establish  peaceable  relations  and 
appointed  a  commission  consisting  of  Oliver  Ellsworth, 
William  R.  Davie,  and  William  Vans  Murray,  to  go  to 
Paris.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  First  Consul,  also  ap 
pointed  a  Commission  of  three,  and  September  30,  1800  a 
treaty  was  concluded.  Napoleon  agreed  to  regard  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  1778  as  no  longer  binding,  and  the 
United  States  relinquished  all  claims  to  indemnity.  The 
President  regarded  this  as  his  greatest  service  to  the  nation. 
Years  later  he  declared  that  he  desired  no  other  epitaph 
than:  "Here  lies  John  Adams,  who  took  upon  himself 


Foreign  Relations  235 

the    responsibility    of    peace   with    France    in    the  year 
1800." 

While  foreign  affairs  were  demanding  attentioH,  party  Alien  and 
spirit  continued  to  grow  more  bitter.  The  President  and  fae^tion 
the  Government  were  openly  denounced.  Among  the 
Republicans  were  certain  foreigners,  thought  to  be  French 
agents,  who  were  extreme  in  their  abuse.  In  1798,  Con-  * 
gress,  under  Federalist  control,  passed  three  laws  by  which 
it  was  hoped  to  repress  these  attacks.  (1)  By  the  Natural 
ization  Act,  the  time  of  residence  necessary  to  become  a 
citizen  was  raised  from  five  to  fourteen  years  (repealed  in 
1802).  (2)  The  Alien  Acts  authorized  the  President  to 
expel  from  the  United  States  all  aliens  whom  he  should 
deem  dangerous.  (3)  The  Sedition  Act  provided  for  the 
punishment  by  fine  and  imprisonment  of  any  person  who 
should  by  writing  or  speaking  bring  the  Government, 
either  House  of  Congress,  or  the  President,  into  disrepute. 
The  Alien  Acts  were  to  be  in  force  only  two  years,  and  the 
Sedition  Act  less  than  three  years.  There  was  not  a  single 
case  under  the  Alien  Acts  and  only  ten  persons  were  con 
victed  of  sedition. 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  laws  were  denounced  by  the  Re-  Virginia 
publicans  for  they  saw  in  them  the  means  for  a  more  com-  t 
plete  centralization  of  power  in  the  National  Government,   resoiu- 
Influenced  by  Jefferson,  the  legislatures  of  Kentucky  and  i 
Virginia  (1798)  each  passed  a  series  of  resolutions  condemn 
ing  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  as  "unconstitutional,  void, 
and  of  no  force,"  and  asserting  the  right  and  duty  of  the 
States  to  interpose  and  "arrest  the  progress  of  the  evil." 
The  more  moderate  Virginia  resolutions  were  prepared  by 
Madison.     Jefferson   was   the   author   of   the   Kentucky 
resolutions.     The  legislatures  of  the  other  States  refused 
to  sanction  these  resolutions. 

The  Legislature  of  Kentucky  (1799)  passed  a  still  stronger 
set  of  resolutions  declaring  the  States  to  be  sovereign 
and  independent,  and  "that  a  nullification  by  those 
sovereignties,  of  all  unauthorized  acts  done  under  color 


236 


American  History 


Reasons 
for  lack  of 
Federalist 
popularity. 


of    that    instrument    [the    Constitution]    is    the    rightful 
remedy."* 

The  Federalist  party  lost  many  of  its  adherents  because 
of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws.  Their  policy  was  brought 
into  disfavor  also  on  account  of  increased  taxation  and 
especially  the  direct  taxes  made  necessary  in  preparing 
for  war.  After  the 
death  of  Washing 
ton  (1799),  there 
was  no  leader 
strong  enough  to 
preserve  harmony 
in  the  party.  There 
were  dissensions 
within  the  Cabinet. 
Three  members 
looked  for  advice 
to  Hamilton,  party 
rival  to  the  Presi 
dent.  Two  of  them 
were  compelled  to 
resign.  Leading 
Federalists  protest 
ed  also  against  the 
President's  method 
of  dealing  with 
France.  This  fac 
tional  strife  increased  after  the  renomination  of  Adams 
for  the  Presidency.  Charles  C.  Pinckney  was  the  Feder 
alist  candidate  for  Vice-President.  Hamilton  became 
more  bitter  in  his  opposition,  and  on  the  eve  of  the  elec 
tion,  wrote  a  pamphlet  in  which  he  severely  criticised  the 
political  career  of  President  Adams.  This  ill-advised 
attack  strengthened  the  Republican  cause. 

*It  is  notable  that  nullification  by  a  single  State  is  not  sanctioned. 
Madison  denied  this  doctrine.  But  the  sectionalists  of  New  England 
(1814),  South  Carolina  (1832),  and  those  who  favored  secession  (1861) 
claimed  support  in  these  resolutions. 


^^  Adams 
£23  Jefferson 


Presidential  Election  of  1800 


Foreign  Relations 


237 


Jefferson  was  again  the  candidate  of  that  party  for  Presi-  Jefferson 
dent.     His  principles  of  freedom  of  speech,  opposition  to  ^^nt 
standing  armies  and  to  centralized  government  had  become   isoo. 
more  popular.     Aaron  Burr,  an  unprincipled  politician  of 
New  York,  who  controlled  the  votes  of  that  State  was 
nominated  for  Vice-President.     Jefferson  and  Burr  each 

received  seventy-three  elec 
toral  votes  and  Adams  sixty- 
five.  According  to  the  Con 
stitution  (Article  II,  Section 
I,  Clause  2),  the  election  was 
thrown  into  the  House  of 
Representatives.  When  vot 
ing  by  States,  as  was  re 
quired,  the  Federalists  had  a 
majority  in  the  House.  Many 
of  them,  in  their  dislike  for 
Jefferson,  determined  to  elect 
Burr.  On  the  thirty-sixth 
ballot,  however,  Jefferson 
received  the  votes  of  ten 
States  out  of  sixteen  and  was  elected. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  such  a  contest,  the  Twelfth 
Twelfth  Amendment  was  proposed  by  Congress,  and  after  m™nt! 
ratification  by  the  States  was  declared  in  force  (1804). 
This  provides  that  the  electors  shall  cast  separate  ballots 
for  President  and  for  Vice-President. 

According  to  the  census  of  1800,  the  population  of  the  Popuia- 
United  States  was  5,308,000.     About  2,200,000  of  these  tion>  " 
were  south  of    Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  and  2,700,000 
north.     There  had  been  a  rapid  growth  in  the  number  of 
settlers  west  of  the  Alleghanies.     Kentucky  had  a  popula 
tion  of  229,000;  Tennessee,  106,000;  Ohio,  45,000;  Indiana, 
4,875,  and  Illinois,  2,300.     The  centre  of  population  had 
moved  westward.     In  1790,  it   was    twenty-three    miles 
east  of  Baltimore.     Now  it  was  eighteen  miles  west  of 
that  city.     Three  new  States  had  been  admitted  into  the 


Samuel  Slater 


238 


American  History 


Union :  Vermont  (1791);  Kentucky  (1792),  and  Tennes 
see  (1796). 

industrial         In  general,  it  had  been  a  period  of  prosperity.     Trade 

1790-1800    an(*  commerce  had  largely  increased.     It  was  during  this 

decade  that  the  factory  system  was  introduced  into  the 


Whitney's  Cotton  Gin 

From  the  original  model 

United  States.  Spinning  and  weaving  increased  rapidly, 
in  England  after  the  invention  of  the  spinning  jenny  by 
Hargreaves  (1767);  the  spinning  frame  by  Arkwright 
(1769);  the  mule  spinner  by  Crompton  (17.84),  and  the 
power  loom  by  Cartwright  (1785).  England  intended  that 
America  was  not  to  profit  by  these  inventions,  for  an  act 
of  Parliament  (1774)  forbade  the  exportation  of  machines 
used  in  the  cotton  or  linen  manufactures.  However, 
Samuel  Slater,  an  Englishman,  in  1790,  set  up  at  Paw- 


Foreign  Relations  239 

tucket,  Rhode  Island,  the  first  perfected  machinery  for 
spinning,  of  the  English  type,  used  in  this  country.  Be 
fore  coming  to  America,  Slater  had  been  an  apprentice  in 
a  factory  using  such  machinery  and  was  able  to  construct 
it  from  memory. 

In  1793,  Eli  Whitney  invented  the  cotton-gin,  a  machine  The  cot- 
f  or  separating  the  seed  from  the  cotton  fibre.     With  its  aid,   Jjjjj in" 
a  slave  could  clean  fifty  times  as  much  cotton  in  a  day  as 
with  the  old  machines  or  by  hand.     The  production  of 
cotton   and   the   demand   for  slaves   began   to   increase. 
Two  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  cotton  were  exported  in 
1790.     In  1800,  nearly  20,000,000  pounds  were  sent  out  of 
the  country. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Opposition    to    the    Proclamation    of    Neutrality.     Hart, 
Contemporaries,  III,  No.  94. 

2.  Chief    criticisms    of    Genet.     Hart,    Contemporaries,    III, 
No.  95. 

3.  Were    the    French   justified    in    their    attitude?     Walker, 
Making  of  the  Nation,  117-119. 

4.  French  plans   for  getting   control  in  the  West.     Atlantic 
Monthly,  Vol.  93,  676-691;  807-817. 

5.  Treaty-making  power  in  the  United  States.     Authority  of 
the  House  of   Representatives.     Constitution,  Article  II,  section 
2,  clause  1  and  Article  I,  section  9,  clause  7.     James  and  San- 
ford,  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  272,  273. 

6.  Significance  of  the  Jay  treaty.     Jay,  Am.  St.  Series,  chap. 
11.     Hart,   Contemporaries,   III,  No.  97.     Bassett,  The   Fed 
eralist  System,  125-135. 

7.  Washington's  farewell  address.     Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  4. 
Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  chap.  18. 

8.  X,  Y,  Z  letters.     Alien  and  Sedition  laws.     Virginia  and 
Kentucky  resolutions.     Schouler,  History,  I  (old  ed.),  352-358; 
373-382;  385-403;  I,  (new  ed.),  384-397;  404-415.     McMaster, 
History,    II,    376-401;   417-426.     Hart,    Formation,    166-171. 
Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  137-143;  148-155.     Hamilton, 
Am.  St.  Series,  202-212;  218-220.     John  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series, 


240  American  History 

278-288;  291-298;  305-308.  Madison,  Am.  St.  Series,  239-251 
(old  ed.);  231-241  (new  ed.).  Marshall,  Am.  St.  Series,  101- 
130.  Jefferson,  Am.  St.  Series,  178-182;  187-199,  (new  ed.); 
187-195  (old  ed.)  Hart,  Contemporaries,  III,  Nos.  99,  101. 

9.  Power  of  naturalization  and  process.     Constitution,  Article 
I,  Section  VIII,  Clause  4.     Government  in  State  and  Nation, 
222-224. 

10.  Was  it  for  the  best  interests  of  the  nation  that  the  Federal 
ists  should  be  defeated  ?     Causes.     Walker,  Making  the  Nation, 
165-167.     Hart,  Formation,  173,  174.     Hamilton,  Am.  St.  Series, 
222-233.      Bassett,  The  Federalist  System,  276-296. 

11.  Life  in  America,  1800.     McMaster,  History,  II,  538-582. 

12.  Difficulties  in  establishing  the  first  manufactures  in  the 
United  States.     Completion  of  the  factory  system.     Wright,  In 
dustrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States,  117-131. 

13.  American  inventive  genius  before   1793:     Eli     Whitney, 
Samuel  Slater.     Walker,  Making  the  Nation,  67-72.     McMaster, 
History,  II,  159-165. 

14.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  15. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
DEMOCRACY  AND  EXPANSION,  1801-1811 

MARCH  4,  1801,  accompanied  by  a  few  friends  and  an  inaugura- 
escort  of  militia,  Jefferson  walked  across  the  square  from  Jefferson,, 
his  boarding-house  to  the  unfinished  capitol  in  order  to 
take  the  oath  of  office  as  President  of  the  United  States. 
To  his  political  opponents,  the  new  President  was  a 
"violent  Democrat"  and  "a  vulgar  demagogue."  By  his 
own  party  he  was  almost  idolized.  For  many  years  he 
had  been  conspicuous  in  public  affairs  as  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  Governor  of  Virginia,  Minister  to 
France,  Secretary  of  State,  and  Vice-President.  He  now 
stood,  he  believed,  as  the  representative  of  the  people, 
against  the  monarchical  tendencies  of  the  Federalists. 
Jefferson,  as  President,  abolished  all  forms  and  ceremo 
nials.  He  was  dignified  and  gentlemanly  in  manners, 
scholarly  in  tastes,  and  sympathetic  with  men  irrespective 
of  their  advantages.  In  conversation  with  a  friend,  he 
said:  "The  whole  of  my  life  has  been  a  war  with  my 
natural  tastes,  feelings  and  wishes.  Domestic  life  and 
literary  pursuits  were  my  first  and  my  latest  inclinations; 
circumstances  and  not  my  desires  lead  me  to  the  path  I 
have  trod." 

Although  a  large  land  owner  and  slaveholder,  he  was 
opposed  to  slavery.  He  advocated  the  necessity  of  edu 
cation  for  the  people,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  University 
of  Virginia.  Jefferson  had  confidence  in  the  self-govern 
ing  capacity  of  the  people;  preferred  to  manage  men  rather 
than  command  them,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  advocated  the 

241 


242 


A  mcrican  Histo  ry 


Jefferson 
and  the 
civil 
service. 


Repeal  of 
Judiciary 
Act  of 
1801. 


strict  construction  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  a  poor 
public  speaker,  and  began  the  custom  of  sending  his  mes 
sages  to  be  read  before  Congress  instead  of  delivering 
formal  addresses  as  Washington  and  Adams  had  done. 

In  his  inaugural  address  Jefferson  had  declared:  "We 
are  all  Republicans.  We  are  all  Federalists!"  He  soon 
appreciated  that  the  "revolution"  which  brought  him  into 

office  was  incomplete 
so  long  as  the  vic 
torious  party  did  not 
share  in  the  appoint 
ive  offices.  Some 
of  the  office-holders, 
therefore,  were  re 
moved  and  their 
places  given  to  Re 
publicans.  In  all, 
during  eight  years, 
Jefferson  removed 
hundred  and 


Thomas  Jefferson,  by  Gilbert  Stuart 

The  property  of  T.  Jefferson  Coolidge 


one 

nine  civil  officials, 
or  about  one-fourth 
the  entire  number 


then  holding  Presidential  offices.  President  Adams  is  re 
ported  to  have  continued  to  appoint  members  of  his  party 
to  office  until  nine  o'clock  of  the  last  night  of  his  adminis 
tration.  Jefferson  was  indignant  over  this,  called  by  him, 
"indecent  conduct"  of  Adams. 

Some  of  these  so-called  "midnight  appointments"  were 
connected  with  the  putting  into  force  of  the  Judiciary  Act 
of  February  13,  1801.  This  law,  although  there  was  no 
real  need  for  the  extension  of  the  judicial  system,  provided 
for  the  appointment  of  sixteen  circuit  judges  and  increased 
the  number  of  marshals  and  district-attorneys.  The  Re 
publican  Congress  repealed  the  act  in  1802.* 

*  Special  judges  were  not  again  appointed  for- the  circuit  courts  until 
1869. 


Democracy  and  Expansion 


243 


Jefferson  withheld  certain  commissions  to  office  which  Marbury 
had  been  duly  made  out  and  signed  in  the  closing  hours  Jvikdison 
of  Adams's  administration.  William  Marbury  (1801)  asked 
the  Supreme  Court  for  a  writ  to  compel  Madison,  the  Sec 
retary  of  State,  to  deliver  to  him  his  commission  to  office. 
(In  the  Judiciary  Act  of  1789,  Congress  had  granted  the 

Supreme  Court  the  right 
to  issue  such  an  order.) 
This  request  was  refused 
by  the  Supreme  Court, 
however,  on  the  ground 
that  the  Constitution  did 
not  give  the  Court  this 
power.  Chief  Justice 
Marshall,  in  rendering 
this  important  decision, 
took  the  position  that  the 
Supreme  Court  might 
declare  void  an  act  of 
Congress  deemed  con 
trary  to  the  Constitution. 

President  Adams,  in  John 
appointing  John  Mar-  MarshaU 
shall  Chief  Justice  per 
formed  one  of  his  great 
est  services  for  the  nation.  Marshall  was  at  that  time  well 
known  as  a  lawyer,  soldier,  legislator,  and  statesman. 
The  notable  decisions  which  he  delivered  during  the 
thirty-four  years  he  was  Chief  Justice  distinguished  him 
as  the  leading  American  jurist.  His  was  the  great  task 
of  construing  for  the  first  time  the  principles  of  the  Con 
stitution.  So  convincing  was  his  logic  that  only  once 
was  the  majority  of  the  Court  against  him  on  a  constitu 
tional  question. 

Because  of  the  unusual  expenses  to  the  Government  on  Financial 
account  of  Indian  wars  and  the  trouble  with  France,  the 
National  debt  under  the  Federalists  had  increased  some 


John  Marshall 

From  an  engraving  of  the  painting  by  Henry  Inman 


244 


American  History 


Louisiana 
ceded  to 
France, 
1800. 


$6,000,000.  Economy  in  public  expense,  reduction  of  the 
debt  and  of  taxes  were  cardinal  doctrines  of  the  new 
administration.  The  thorough  work  of  Albert  Gallatin, 
as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  enabled  Jefferson  to  carry 
out  his  policy.  For  years  Gallatin  had  been  a  student  of 
finance,  and,  as  a  representative  from  Pennsylvania,  was 
a  leader  in  opposition  to  Hamilton's 
plans.  Internal  revenue  taxes  were 
repealed.  The  Government  was  de 
pendent  then  for  revenue  upon  cus 
toms  duties  and  the  sales  of  public 
lands.  Reduction  in  expenditures 
was  begun  at  once.  "Peace  is  our 
passion,"  Jefferson  had  said.  The 
army  was  greatly  reduced  in  num 
bers,  although  an  appropriation  was 
allowed  (1802)  for  the  establishment  of 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point. 
The  attack  fell  heaviest  on  the  naval 
appropriation.  The  construction  of 
new  vessels  was  discontinued,  and  the 
number  of  vessels  in  commission  was 
cut  down.  Could  the  President  have 
carried  out  his  plan,  the  remainder 
would  have  been  brought  into  dock 
and  "laid  up  dry  and  under  cover  of 
Cavalry  Private,  1801  the  sun."  Notwithstanding  the  addi 
tional  expenditures  connected  with  the 
acquisition  of  Louisiana  and  growing  out  of  the  war  with 
the  Barbary  Powers,  the  public  debt  was  reduced  from 
$80,000,000  in  1801  to  $53,000,000  in  1810. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  King  of  France  ceded  to  Spain, 
in  1763,  that  part  of  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River  together  with  the  Island  of  Orleans  (on  which  New 
Orleans  is  situated)  lying  east  of  that  river.  To  Great 
Britain  was  presented  the  strip  of  land,  later  called  West 
Florida,  along  the  Gulf  from  the  Island  of  Orleans  to 


Democracy  and  Expansion  245 

the  Perdido  River.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolution  (1783), 
this  territory  was  ceded  by  Great  Britain  to  Spain.  France 
wanted  to  regain  colonial  empire  in  America,  and  Na 
poleon  Bonaparte,  by  the  treaty  of  San  Ildefonso  in  1800, 
made  a  successful  advance  toward  this  goal.  The  King 
of  Spain  retrocedeq!  Louisiana  to  France,  receiving  in  ex 
change  the  Italian  kingdom  of  Tuscany  for  his  son-in-law. 
The  knowledge  of  this  exchange  excited  great  alarm  among 
Americans,  for  France  was  then  at  the  height  of  her  power. 
"The  day  that  France  takes  possession  of  New  Orleans," 
wrote  Jefferson  to  Robert  R.  Livingston,  our  Minister  to 
France,  "fixes  the  sentence  which  is  to  restrain  her  forever 
within  her  low-water  mark.  .  .  .  From  that  moment,  we 
must  marry  ourselves  to  the  British  fleet  and  nation." 

The  West  became  still  more  inflamed  when  it  was  learned  Purchase 
in  November,  1802,  that  the  Spanish  Governor  had  with-  Louisiana, 
drawn  the  right  of  deposit  at  New  Orleans.     War  against 
France   and   Spain   was   demanded   by   the   Federalists. 
Jefferson  now  instructed  Livingston  to  buy  New  Orleans 
and  West  Florida.     In  January,  1803,  James  Monroe  was 
appointed  special  envoy  to  France  to  assist  Livingston. 

In  order  to  carry  out  his  plan  of  empire  in  America, 
Napoleon  determined  first  to  reconquer  Santo  Domingo.* 
The  negro  leader,  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  with  his  native 
troops,  resisted  successfully  the  invasion  of  the  large 
French  army  sent  against  them.  Napoleon  was  disap 
pointed  at  the  outcome.  Besides,  in  case  of  war  with  Eng 
land,  a  war  which  was  impending,  he  knew  that  Lou 
isiana  could  not  be  held.  Talleyrand,  therefore,  startled 
Livingston  by  asking  him  what  the  United  States  would 
pay  for  the  whole  of  Louisiana.  On  the  next  day  Monroe 
reached  Paris.  The  ministers  decided- to  go  beyond  the 
power  of  their  instructions,  and  finally,  on  April  30,  1803, 
completed  the  treaty  by  which  the  United  States  secured 

*  The  combined  exports  and  imports  of  this  island  in  1789  amounted  to 
$140,000,000.  The  plan  was  to  crush  the  Revolution  there,  and  then  go 
on  and  take  possession  of  Louisiana. 


Democracy  and  Expansion  247 

New  Orleans  and  all  of  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
For  this  immense  area  of  890,900  square  miles,  there  was 
to  be  paid  $15,000,000.  Of  this  sum,  $3,750,000  was  to 
go  to  satisfy  the  claims  of  Americans  against  France  for 
spoliations  committed  on  American  commerce  since  1800. 

November  30,  1803,  the  Spanish  Governor  transferred  The 
Louisiana,  with  its  population  of  some  50,000,  one-half  Loufsiana. 
of  whom  were  negro  slaves  to  a  French  agent  of  Napoleon. 
Seventeen  days  later  the  United  States  was  given  formal 
possession.     The  following  year  the  southern  part  of  the 
territory  was  organized  as  the  territory  of  Orleans. 

The  boundaries  of  the  purchase  were  not  definitely  defined.    Limits  of 
Livingston  and  Monroe  asserted  that  the  cession  extended  to  the    Louisiana. 
Perdido  River,  thus  including  West  Florida,  but  Spain  refused 
to  withdraw  from  this  territory.     In  1810,  President  Madison 
annexed  a  part  of  this  territory  to  the  United  States,  and  three 
years  later  the  remainder  of  West  Florida  was  occupied.     It  is 
probable  that  the   Louisiana  Purchase  did  not  include  West 
Florida,  but  did  extend  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

"We  have  lived  long,"  said  Livingston,  as  he  arose  after  Sigmfi- 
signing  the  treaty,     "but  this  is  the  noblest  work  of  our  theaV* 
lives."     The  purchase  of  Louisiana  was  one  of  the  most  quisition. 
important  events   in   the   history  of   the   United   States. 
Among  the  effects  may  be  mentioned:  (1)  It  doubled  the 
area  of  the  United  States.     (2)  The  contest  of  rival  Eu 
ropean  powers  for  the  possession  of  the  valley  of  the  Mis 
sissippi  was  ended.     (3)  It  established  an  important  pre 
cedent  in  the  direction  of  the  loose  construction  of  the 
Constitution.     (4)  Thereafter,   the  United  States   was  to 
expand  steadily  in  the  direction  of  a  world  power. 

By  the  strict  interpretation  of  the  Constitution,  there  was  no    Strict  con- 
power  given  the  Government  to    acquire    territory.     Jefferson   struction 
advocated  an  amendment  that  would  confirm  the  action,  but   purcnase. 
haste  was  necessary,  for  Napoleon  might  change  his  mind.     By 
ratifying  the  treaty,  therefore,  the  doctrine  of  implied  powers  was 
adopted  by  the  Republicans.     The  Federalists  were  bitter  in 
their  opposition;  for  they  feared  the  future  influence  over  legis 
lation  of  the  new  States  which  were  ultimately  to  be  formed  out  of 
the  territory. 


248 


American  History 


Expedition  As  early  as  1783,  Jefferson  became  interested  in  a  proj- 
and'ciark.  ect  to  discover  a  route  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  from 
the  Missouri  River.  In  a  secret  message  to  Congress, 
January,  1803,  he  proposed  that  an  expedition  be  sent  to 
the  Indians  on  the  Missouri  in  order  to  secure  their  trade, 
then  absorbed  by  English  companies,  and  to  extend  the 
exploration  "even  to  the  Western  Ocean."  In  pursuance 
of  this  object  a  party  of  thirty-five  men  under  command 
of  Meriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clark  began  the  as 
cent  of  the  Missouri  River  from  St.  Louis,  May  14,  1804. 
With  great  difficulty,  they  reached,  at  the  end  of  one  hun 
dred  and  seventy-three  days  travel,  the  region  of  the  present 
Bismarck,  North  Dakota,  having  journeyed  on  an  average 
nine  miles  a  day.  The  winter  was  spent  near  the  chief 
village  of  the  Mandan  Indians.  Setting  out  the  following 
spring  they  reached  the  source  of  the  Missouri  on  the 
twelfth  of  August.  Crossing  the  mountains,  a  perilous 
journey,  to  the  Columbia,  they  descended  that  river  in 
canoes.  On  November  7,  1805,  Clark  wrote:  "Great  joy 
in  camp,  we  are  in  view  of  the  ocian,  this  great  Pacific 
Octean  which  we  have  been  so  long  anxious  to  see."  The 
entire  continent  had  at  last  been  crossed  by  American  ex 
plorers,  and  the  claim  of  the  United  States  to  Oregon  was 
strengthened.*  (Map,  p.  246.) 

Expiora-  In  1805,  Lieutenant  Zebulon  Pike  was  sent  from  St. 
Lieutenant  ^ouis  with  a  command  of  United  States  troops,  to  find  the 
Pike.  source  of  the  Mississippi.  Succeeding  in  this,  on  his  return 

to  St.  Louis  he  set  out  to  explore  the  Arkansas  and  Red 
rivers.  On  the  expedition,  he  discovered  the  mountain 
peak  to  which  was  given  his  name.  Turning  to  the  south 
west,  after  terrible  suffering  because  of  the  snow  and  ice, 
they  reached  the  Spanish  settlement  at  Santa  F£  (Feb 
ruary  26,  1807).  The  return  to  the  United  States  was 
made  through  Texas. 

*In  1792,  Captain  Robert  Gray  of  Boston  had  discovered,  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  the  mouth  of  a  large  river  which  he  called  The  Columbia 
after  the  name  of  his  vessel. 


Democracy  and  Expansion 


249 


Western  settlement  and  travel  were  soon  greatly  acceler-  Fulton's 
ated  through  the  use  of  the  steamboat.     A  number  of  ex-  steamboat, 
periments  by  Americans,  notably  those  of  James  Rumsey 
(1785)  and  John  Fitch  (1790),  proved  that  boats  could  be 
driven  by  steam.     But  steam  navigation  was  really  not 


Fulton's  "Clennont,"  1807 


begun  until  Robert  Fulton  ran  his  steamboat,  the  Cler- 
mont  from  New  York  to  Albany,  150  miles  in  32  hours 
(August  11,  1807). 

The  Barbary  States  of  North  Africa  had,  for  generations,  sub 
sisted  by  preying  upon  Mediterranean  commerce.  Ships  were 
captured  and  passengers  and  crews  enslaved.  To  escape  these 
depredations,  the  United  States,  like  the  European  powers,  was 
compelled  to  make  costly  presents  in  addition  to  paying  a  yearly 
tribute.  Altogether,  the  Pasha  of  Tripoli,  alone,  received 
$83,000  annually  from  our  Government.  But  he  was  not  con 
tent,  and  as  a  sign  of  defiance,  May  14,  1801,  ordered  the  flag 
staff  of  the  American  Consulate  to  be  chopped  down.  Jefferson 
had  already  ordered  a  small  fleet  to  the  Mediterranean  because  of 
the  insults  of  the  Algerine  pirates.  Commodore  Preble  was  sent 
with  a  stronger  fleet  in  1803,  and  the  war  was  conducted  with 
greater  vigor.  The  Pasha  was  willing  to  come  to  terms  (1805) 


War  with 
the 

Barbary 
Powers. 


250 


American  History 


Jefferson 
reflected 
President. 


Death  of 

Alexander 

Hamilton. 


Burr's 
conspiracy 


after  the  repeated  bombardment  of  the  city  of  Tripoli  and  the 
destruction  of  his  vessels.  He  agreed  not  to  ask  for  further 
tribute  from  the  Americans.  Two  squadrons  were  sent  against 
the  Dey  of  Algiers  at  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812  because  of  his 
attacks  on  American  commerce  during  that  war.  Thoroughly 
frightened,  he  agreed  that  no  tribute  should  ever  again  be  asked 
by  him  from  the  United  States.  Other  nations  followed  the  ex 
ample  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Mediterranean  was  freed 
from  these  scourges. 

The  power  of  the  Republicans  had  grown  steadily.  In 
the  election  of  1804,  Jefferson  and  George  Clinton  were 
nominated  by  that  party  for  President  and  Vice-President. 
They  were  triumphantly  elected,  each  receiving  162  elec 
toral  votes,  while  their  opponents,  Charles  C.  Pinckney 
and  Rufus  King,  received  only  14  each.  For  the  first  time 
the  candidates  had  been  nominated  by  the  "  Congressional 
Caucus." 

Aaron  Burr  had  sacrificed  his  influence  in  the  Republican 
party  by  becoming  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1801. 
As  an  independent  he  strove  to  get  the  support  of  the  Fed 
eralists  in  his  attempt  to  be  made  governor  of  New  York. 
It  was  largely  due  to  Hamilton  that  he  was  defeated. 
Burr  then  challenged  Hamilton  to  a  duel  and  killed  him 
(July,  1804).  Then  only  forty-seven  years  of  age,  Ham 
ilton  had  acquired  the  honor  of  being  classed  among  the 
greatest  of  the  world's  constructive  statesmen.  His  death 
did  much  to  place  duelling  under  the  ban  in  the  Northern 
States. 

Burr  became  an  outcast.  It  is  not  certain  what  he  dreamed 
of  accomplishing  in  an  undertaking  which  he  entered  upon  (1805- 
1806).  Did  he  hope,  because  of  the  discontent  of  Western  set 
tlers,  to  bring  about  the  separation  of  the  region  west  of  the 
mountains  from  the  Union,  or  was  he  planning  to  bring  on  a 
revolution  in  Mexico  with  the  thought  of  making  himself  king? 
Sixty  men  were  assembled  for  the  expedition,  and  with  arms  and 
ammunition  they  set  out  for  New  Orleans  from  Blennerhassett's 
Island.*  Reaching  Natchez,  Burr  learned  that  General  Wilkin 
son,  commander  of  the  United  States  troops  in  the  Southwest, 

*  An  island  in  the  Ohio  a  short  distance  below  Marietta.  Blennerhassett 
was  one  of  the  conspirators. 


Democracy  and  Expansion  251 

instead  of  cooperating  with  him,  had  betrayed  the  design  to 
Jefferson.  In  disguise,  Burr  tried  to  escape  to  Spanish  Florida. 
He  was  arrested  and  brought  to  trial  for  treason.  But  he  was 
acquitted;  for  it  was  not  proved  that  he  had  actually  levied  war 
against  the  United  States.  Thenceforth  he  lived  in  obscurity. 

The  struggle  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  de-  Great 
layed  for  a  year  by  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  was  resumed  ^J 
in  1803.  Up  to  that  time,  American  commerce  had  ex-  and  neu- 
panded  especially  in  carrying  products  of  the  French  and 
Spanish  West  Indies.  A  way  around  the  "Rule  of  1756" 
(p.  227)  was  sanctioned  by  Great  Britain.  Cargoes  from 
the  West  Indies  might  be  carried  to  France  or  Spain  pro 
viding  they  were  first  landed  in  some  port  of  the  United 
States  and  customs  duties  paid.  But  English  ship-owners 
wanted  the  control  of  this  trade  and  the  British  Govern 
ment,  in  1805,  decreed  that  the  rule  of  1756  should  be 
enforced  literally.  During  that  year  Admiral  Nelson,  in 
the  celebrated  victory  of  Trafalgar,  gave  to  Great  Britain 
complete  supremacy  on  the  seas.  Napoleon  was  supreme 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Neutral  trade  was  almost 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  Americans.  By  attacking  this 
trade,  each  of  these  antagonists  hoped  to  give  a  telling 
blow  to  the  other. 

Napoleon  inaugurated  his  " Continental  system"  by 
insisting  that  Prussia  (1806)  should  declare  all  German 
ports  closed  to  British  vessels.  Great  Britain  retaliated 
by  declaring  the  coast  blockaded  from  Brest  to  the  Elbe, 
a  distance  of  about  eight  hundred  miles.  Napoleon,  in 
reply,  issued  the  Berlin  Decree  (November,  1806),  which 
declared  the  British  Isles  in  a  state  of  blockade  and  for 
bade  all  trade  in  British  goods.  By  Orders  in  Coun 
cil  in  the  year  1807,  neutral  vessels  were  forbidden  to 
trade  with  any  port  in  Europe  from  which  the  British  flag 
was  excluded,  unless  certain  duties  were  first  paid  at  some 
port  of  Great  Britain.  Napoleon  issued  the  Milan  Decree 
(December  17,  1807),  which  declared  that  any  vessel  might 
be  seized  which  submitted  to  search  by  the  British  or  en- 


252 


American  History 


Right  of 
search  and 
impress 
ment. 


Attack  on 
the 

Chesa 
peake. 


Policy  of 
Jefferson. 


tered  a  port  of  that  nation.  Neither  nation  hesitated  in 
asserting  these  "paper  blockades";  that  is,  mere  declara 
tions  without  sufficient  force  to  make  them  effective. 
Under  their  cover,  American  ships  whenever  found  on  the 
high  seas  were  seized  by  the  cruisers  of  both  belligerents.* 

Moreover,  with  the  renewal  of  war  (1803),  Great  Britain, 
with  still  greater  arrogance,  assumed  the  right  to  search 
American  vessels  for  British  seamen  and  to  impress  them 
into  her  service.  British  war- vessels  even  anchored  just 
outside  American  ports;  their  brutal  press-gangs  boarded 
merchant  vessels  and  captured  and  impressed  American 
seamen.  It  is  estimated  that  the  number  of  seamen  seized 
during  these  trying  times  exceeded  4,000. 

The  climax  occurred  off  Hampton  Roads,  June  22,  1807. 
The  British  frigate  Leopard  overhauled  the  American 
frigate  Chesapeake  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  "cer 
tain  deserters/'  The  order  being  refused,  the  Leopard 
opened  fire  at  short  range  and  the  Chesapeake,  unpre 
pared  for  action,  was  compelled  to  haul  down  her  flag. 
Four  "deserters"  were  taken,  three  of  whom  were  Ameri 
can  citizens.  All  America  was  aroused  over  this  outra 
geous  act,  in  which  three  Americans  had  been  killed  and 
a  number  wounded. 

But  were  these  insults  to  pass  unheeded?  Urged  to 
declare  war,  Jefferson,  still  clinging  to  his  policy  of  peace 
and  economy,  ordered  all  British  warships  to  quit  the 
waters  of  the  United  States.  Instead  of  ships  of  war,  he 
now  advocated  the  building  of  small  gun-boats  for  defence 
of  the  coasts.  They  were  each  to  carry  one  gun  and  be 
manned  by  from  five  to  seven  men.  By  1807,  over  one 
hundred  and  fifty  of  these  boats  had  been  constructed,  but 
the  plan  was  a  complete  failure. 

The  period  of  the  Jay  treaty  had  expired,  and  in  1806 
Monroe  and  William  Pinckney  were  sent  to  London  to 
conclude  a  new  treaty.  This  they  did,  but  the  terms  made 

*  Great  Britain,  in  a  single  year,  captured  two  hundred  American 
vessels. 


Democracy  and  Expansion  253 

no  provision  for  giving  up  the  right  of  search  and  impress 
ment.  Jefferson  refused  even  to  submit  the  treaty  to  the 
Senate. 

But  American  interests  were  suffering  and  upon  the  The 
recommendation  of  the  President  an  embargo  act  was  embars°- 
hurriedly  passed  at  the  close  of  the  year  1807  which  pro 
hibited  the  sailing  of  vessels  from  the  United  States  to 
foreign  ports.  It  was  hoped  that  the  belligerents  \vould  be 
driven  to  make  terms  when  American  products  were  cut 
off.  The  embargo  proved  injurious  to  the  working  classes 
of  Great  Britain,  but  that  Government  still  adhered  to  its 
policy.  Napoleon  even  claimed  to  be  assisting  Jefferson 
in  carrying  out  his  policy  by  ordering  all  American  vessels 
in  French  ports  to  be  confiscated.  Southern  planters, 
thus  deprived  of  leading  markets  for  their  products,  were 
many  of  them  ruined.  The  effects  were  similar  upon  the 
commercial  interests  of  the  Middle  and  New  England 
States.  New  England  Federalists  declared  the  act  uncon 
stitutional  and  threatened  secession.  More  drastic  sup 
plementary  acts  were  passed  to  prevent  smuggling.  As 
a  fortunate  outcome,  manufacturing  was  greatly  accel 
erated. 

It  became  clear  that  the  embargo  was  a  failure  and  must  Non- 
be  repealed.     For  it  was  substituted  the  Non-intercourse 
Act,  by  which  all  commerce  was  forbidden  with  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  their  dependencies. 

Meantime,  Jefferson,  following  the  example  of  Wash-  James 

„         ,    ,      ,  »•  j  A     *  Ai  •    i    ,  Madison 

mgton,  refused  to  become  a  candidate  for  a  third  term,  elected 

James  Madison  and  George  Clinton,  nominated  for  Pres-  J£|j|Ident| 
ident  and  Vice-President  by  the  Republicans,  were  elected 
by  a  large  majority  of  electoral  votes  over  Charles  C. 
Pinckney  and  Rufus  King,  the  candidates  of  the  Federalists. 
Madison  had  already  acquired  an  enduring  reputation 
through  his  influence  in  the  Constitutional  Convention 
as  a  leader  of  his  party  in  Congress,  and  as  Secretary  of 
State.  A  statesman  of  great  political  ability,  he  lacked  the 
qualities  of  a  vigorous  administrator  so  necessary  in  the 


254 


American  History 


New 

troubles 

with 

Great 

Britain. 


Napoleon's 
duplicity. 


critical  international  relations  of  the  time.  Albert  Galla- 
tin  was  retained  as  Secretary  of  Treasury.  In  1810,  James 
Monroe  was  made  Secretary  of  State. 

It  appeared  for  a  time  that  Madison  would  be  able  to 
carry  out  his  policy  of  peace.  An  agreement  was  reached 
with  David  M.  Erskine,  English  Minister  at  Washington, 
whereby  the  Orders  in  Council  were  to  be  withdrawn,  and 

Madison  proclaimed  the 
reopening  of  trade  with 
Great  Britain.  But  this 
action  of  Erskine  was 
repudiated  by  his  Gov 
ernment,  and  he  was 
recalled.  Non-inter 
course  was  again  de 
clared  in  force.  The 
new  Minister  from 
Great  Britain,  Francis 
J.  Jackson,  was  an  able 
exponent  of  the  arrogant 
attitude  of  the  Court 
he  represented.  Presi 
dent  Madison,  he  de 
clared,  knew  that  Ers 
kine  was  exceeding  his 
authority .  Jackson 
was  informed  that  no 

more  communications  would  be  received  from  him,  and 
he  returned  to  England. 

For  some  time  Napoleon  had  been  enforcing  one  of  the 
most  outrageous  of  his  decrees.  Because  of  the  Non- 
intercourse  Act,  he  issued  the  Rambouillet  Decree,  which 
prescribed  that  every  vessel  bearing  the  American  flag 
which  had  entered  or  should  enter  the  ports  of  France  after 
May  20,  1809,  or  the  ports  of  any  country  under  French 
control,  should  be  seized  and  sold.  Before  it  became 
known  in  the  United  States,  vessels  and  cargoes  were  con- 


James  Madison 

From  a  painting  by  Gilbert  Stuart.      Property  of  T 
Jefferson  Coolidge 


Democracy  and  Expansion  255 

fiscated  which,  when  sold,  poured  some  $10,000,000  into 
the  French  Treasury. 

In  the  meantime,  Congress  (May  1,  1810),  passed  the 
"Macon  Bill  No.  2"  which  repealed  the  Non-intercourse 
Act.  If  either  Great  Britain  or  France  should  agree  to  stop 
its  violations  on  neutral  commerce,  then  intercourse  between 
the  United  States  and  the  other  nation  was  to  cease.  Here 
was  Napoleon's  opportunity  for  deception  which  he  be 
lieved  would  lead  to  the  destruction  of  his  enemy.  A  let 
ter  from  the  French  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  to  Arm 
strong,  American  Minister  in  Paris  (August  5,  1810),  an 
nounced  that  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  would  cease 
to  have  effect  after  November  1st.  It  was  stipulated 
that  Great  Britain  was  to  revoke  her  Orders  in  Council 
or  the  United  States  should  "cause  their  rights  to  be 
respected  by  the  English.  "  The  letter  also  affirmed 
the  love  that  Napoleon  bore  the  Americans;  and  that 
their  prosperity  and  their  commerce  were  within  the 
scope  of  his  policy. 

The  breakdown  of  the  Napoleonic  system  was  hastened  through  Napoleon- 

the  diplomatic  ability  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  American  Minister  ism 

at  St.  Petersburg.     October  25,  1809,  he  was  officially  received  ^ohn 

by  the  Czar,  Alexander  I.     Russia  was  then  the  ally  of  Napoleon.  Quincy 

But  Russia,  compelled  because  of  her  own  industrial  condition  Adams. 


to  carry  on  foreign  trade,  seized  this  opportunity  to  break  with  ™c 
the  policy  of  Napoleon.  Through  the  Russian  Minister  of  For 
eign  Affairs,  Adams  asked  the  interposition  of  the  Czar  in  behalf 
of  American  commerce  in  the  Baltic  then  being  ravaged  by  the 
agents  of  Napoleon,  especially  by  Danish  privateers.  The  Czar, 
to  the  astonishment  of  Adams,  ordered  the  Danish  Goverment  to 
restore  American  property  as  speedily  as  possible.  The  "Em 
peror  was  gratified,"  Adams  was  informed,  "at  this  opportunity 
of  proving  his  friendly  dispositions  toward  the  United  States." 
During  the  summer  of  1810,  the  Czar  refused  to  close  Russian 
ports  to  American  ships  as  Prussia  and  Denmark  had  done. 
His  answer  to  Napoleon  was  in  no  uncertain  terms.  "  I  cannot," 
he  declared,  "  as  I  have  already  told  you,  prohibit  all  commerce 
to  my  subjects  with  the  Americans.  .  .  .  We  must  keep  to  these 
terms,  for  I  declare  to  you,  were  war  at  our  doors,  in  regard  to 
commercial  matters  I  cannot  go  further."  On  December  19, 
an  Imperial  ukase  was  issued  which  admitted  American  produce 


256 


American  History 


and  hundreds  of  American  vessels  entered  Russian  ports.  Eight 
days  afterward,  Adams  notified  the  American  Government  that 
Russia  would  resist  Napoleon  "  to  the  last."  In  February  follow 
ing,  military  movements  on  both  sides  began. 

On  the  Europe  smiled  incredulously  at  the  promise  made  by 

waTwith      Napoleon  to  rescind  his  decrees.     Madison,  however,  ac- 

Great  cepted    literally   the    statement    made    in  the    letter    to 

Armstrong.*    After    a    stormy    session,  Congress   passed 

an  act  (March  2, 
1811)  which  was 
approved  by  the 
President,  again 
declaring  non- 
intercourse  i  n 
force  against 
Great  Britain. 

On  May  16th 
of  that  year,  the 
American  fri 
gate  President 
was  fired  upon 
by  the  sloop-of- 
war  Little  Belt. 
The  return  fire 
quickly  crippled 
the  inferior 
British  vessel. 
Americans  were 

Tecumseh  elated  at  the  out- 

come  for  the 

Chesapeake  affair  was  fresh  in  their  minds.  The  offer 
made  by  the  Government  of  Great  Britain  shortly  after 
ward  to  make  reparation  for  that  attack,  was  accepted, 
but  her  attitude  toward  neutral  rights  remained  unaltered. 

*  The  decrees  were  not  actually  revoked  until  April  28,  1811.  Napoleon 
himself  gave  licenses  to  trade  with  Great  Britain  during  the  period  of  the 
"Continental  System." 


Democracy  and  Expansion  257 

For  some  years  the  Indians  of  the  Western  frontier  had  Battle  of 
looked  upon  the  advance  of  the  white  men  with  jealous 
eyes.  Tecumseh  and  his  brother,  "the  Prophet,"  Indians 
of  unusual  ability  set  about  uniting  the  tribes  of  the  entire 
frontier  into  one  great  confederacy  which  was  to  resist  the 
further  encroachments  upon  their  hunting  grounds.  In 
October,  1811,  Tecumseh  was%absent  among  the  Southern 
Indians,  arousing  them  to  join  the  league  which  had  al 
ready  been  formed  among  the  Northern  tribes.  British 
traders  had  furnished  them  with  arms  and  equipment. 
The  settlers  becoming  alarmed,  General  William  Henry 
Harrison,  the  Governor  of  Indiana  Territory,  collected 
troops  and  marched  against  the  Indians.  Near  the 
"Prophet's  Town"  on  Tippecanoe  Creek  where  it  flows 
into  the  Wabash,  General  Harrison  was  attacked  (No 
vember  7,  1811).  After  the  first  surprise,  the  troops  rallied, 
repulsed  the  Indians,  and  burned  their  town.  The  losses 
on  both  sides  were  heavy,  the  number  of  killed  and 
wounded  reported  by  General  Harrison  being  one  hun 
dred  and  eighty-eight  or  about  one-fourth  of  his  com 
mand  actually  engaged.  Tecumseh  returned  in  December, 
but  the  expected  attack  did  not  follow,  since  he  awaited 
directions  from  Canada. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Compare  the  election  of  President  before  1800  with  later 
process.     Constitution,  Article  II,  section  2,  clause  1.     Amend 
ment  XII.     James  and  Sanford,  Government  in  State  and  Na 
tion,  258-264. 

2.  Civil  Service  during  Jefferson's  administration.     Jefferson 
Am.  St.  Series,   194-200  (new    ed.);  218-225   (old  ed.).     Hart, 
Formation,  179-180. 

3.  Cases  in  which  the  Supreme  Court  has  original  jurisdiction. 
Constitution,  Article  III,  section  2,  clause  2. 

4.  Gallatin's  preparation  and  labors.     Gallatin,  Am.  St.  Series, 
chap.  6. 

5.  The  Louisiana  Purchase.     Jefferson,  Am.  St.  Series,  chap, 


258  American  History 

14.  Monroe,  Am.  St.  Series,  75-91.  McMaster,  History,  IT. 
620-635.  Schouler,  History,  II,  40-50  (old  ed.);  49-59  (new 
ed.).  Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  179-184.  Hart,  Con 
temporaries,  III,  Nos.  111-114.  Sparks,  Expansion  of  the  Am. 
People,  192-210.  Roosevelt,  Winning  of  the  West,  IV,  258- 
282.  Hosmer,  The  Louisiana  Purchase,  chaps.  2,  3,  7.  Hos- 
mer,  Short  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  118-127.  Chan- 
ning,  The  Jeffersonian  System,  47-72. 

6.  Authority  by  which  the  United  States  acquired  territory  not 
possessed  before  1789.     Hart,  Formation,  188.     Walker,  Mak 
ing  of  the  Nation,  182-184.     Government  in  State  and  Nation, 
324-325. 

7.  Significance  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.    Review  of  Reviews, 
Vol.  27,  547-563;  568-584. 

8.  Lewis,  Clark,  and  Pike.     Roosevelt,  Winning  of  the  West, 
IV,  chap.  7.     Hart.  Contemporaries,  III,  No.  115.     Channing, 
The  Jeffersonian  System,  86-99. 

9.  Importation    of    slaves    prohibited.     Article    I,  section  9, 
clause  1.     Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  209-210.     Govern 
ment  in  State  and  Nation,  243,  244. 

10.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap. 
16. 

11.  Historical  fiction.     Cable,  The  Grandissimes  (Louisiana). 
Cable,  Strange  True  Stories  of  Louisiana.     Edward  Eggleston, 
Roxy  (Battle  Tippecanoe). 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  SECOND  WAR  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 

OF  the  members  who  assembled  in  the  extra  session  of  New  men 
Congress   (November  4,   1811),  the  presence  of  a  large  congress, 
number  of  new  men  was  notable.     They  came  chiefly 
from  the  States  of  the  South  and  the  West.     The  influence 
of  these  men  of  a  "younger  generation"  was  to  be  dominant 
in  public  affairs  for  over  a  third  of  a  century.     Aggressive 
by  nature,  ambitious,  self-reliant,  and  intensely  American, 
they  were  ready  to  defend  the  Nation  against  humiliation 
and  insult. 

This  new  spirit  was  manifest  in  the  election  of  Henry   Henry 
Clay  of  Kentucky  as  Speaker  of  the  House.     He  was  the  e\Qcie^ 
embodiment  of  the  energy  characteristic  of  the  West — a  Speaker. 
section  which  already,  as  expressed  in  Clay's  own  words, 
"looked  to  the  conquest  of  Canada  and  the  dictation  of 
peace  at  Quebec  or  Halifax."     At  that  time,  thirty-four 
years  of  age,  he  had  been  a  leader  in  the  Legislature  of  his 
State.     He  had  been  sent  on  two  occasions  to  fill  a  vacancy 
in  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he  had  won  a  place  by 
his  power  of  argumentation  and  fiery  eloquence.     From 
the  Speaker's  chair  and  on  the  floor  of  the  House,  Clay 
wielded  a  dominating  influence  over  legislation. 

The  war  party  was  given  control  of  the  chief  committees.   Deciara- 
John  C.  Calhoun,  then  thirty  years  of  age,  who  was  serving  Jj°"  of 
his  first  term  as  Representative  from  South  Carolina,  was  against 
placed  on  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations,  and  soon  Britain, 
began  to  direct  its  policy.     In  his  speech  on  the  first  report 
of  this  Committee,  he  showed  that  force  and  assurance 

259 


260 


American  History 


Madison 
reflected 
President. 


Strength  of 
the  bellig 
erents. 


characteristic  of  all  his  efforts.  The  resolutions  submitted 
(November  29,  1811)  indicated  clearly  what  the  policy  of 
the  "  war-hawks,"  as  John  Randolph  called  them,  was  to 
be.  It  recommended :  that  the  army  should  be  increased ; 
that  the  navy  be  put  into  condition  for  im 
mediate  service;  and  that  merchant  vessels 
be  allowed  to  arm  in  self-defence.  Re 
luctantly  President  Madison  was  forced  to 
modify  his  peaceful  attitude  and  to  sign 
the  act  declaring  war  against  Great  Britain 
(June  18,  1812).  On  June  23,  that  Gov 
ernment  revoked  the  Orders  in  Council. 
Even  had  this  action  been  known  in 
America,  it  is  probable  that  impressment 
would  have  been  regarded  as  adequate 
cause  to  go  on  with  the  struggle. 

Among  the  leading  causes  for  war  men 
tioned  by  the  President  were:  (1)  The 
impressment  of  seamen;  (2)  the  violation 
of  the  rights  of  commerce  by  British 
cruisers  in  American  waters;  (3)  "the 
mock  blockades"  of  the  Orders  in  Council; 
and  (4)  attacks  of  the  savages  incited  by 
British  traders. 

A  month  previous  to  this  time,  Madison 
had  been  nominated  for  a  second  term.  It 
was  declared,  without  adequate  evidence, 
that  he  agreed  to  sanction  war  as  a  condi 
tion  of  his  renomination.  He  received  128 
electoral  votes  as  against  89  for  De  Witt 
Clinton,  the  nominee  of  the  "Peace  Party." 

America  was  wholly  unprepared  to  engage  in  such  a  conflict, 
although  it  was  seen  to  be  approaching  for  years.  The  regular 
army  was  composed  of  only  6,700  men  led  by  officers  who  had 
grown  old  in  the  service  or  by  those  with  little  experience.  De 
pendence  upon  volunteers  and  militia  was  necessary.  The  Brit 
ish  army  was  composed  largely  of  veterans  under  able  leaders. 
Besides,  Great  Britain  controlled  the  ocean  with  a  navy  con- 


Infantry  Private, 
1810 


The  Second  War  for  Independence  261 

sisting  of  994  vessels  of  war,  over  200  of  them  larger  than 
any  in  the  American  navy,  which  contained  only  16  effective 
vessels  and  165  gun-boats.  In  contrast  with  the  army, 
American  naval  officers  were  equal  to  the  best  of  their  oppo 
nents,  and  the  crews  were,  man  for  man,  superior  to  those  of 
Great  Britain. 

It  was  with  difficulty  that  the  necessary  money  for  the  Financial 
war,  which  cost  $30,000,000  each  year,  was  raised.  The  conditions 
customs  revenue  upon  which  the  Government  depended 
began  immediately  to  decrease,  and  in  1812  amounted  to 
only  $9,000,000.  The  plans  resorted  to,  among  others,  to 
raise  money,  were  double  duties  on  imports,  double  post 
age,  direct  and  excise  taxes.  Loans  were  made  with 
difficulty,  bonds  were  sold  much  below  their  face  value, 
and  $37,000,000  in  treasury  notes  were  issued.  Great 
Britain  at  that  time  was  raising,  by  taxation,  $350,000,000 
annually. 

Regardless  of  the  lack  of  preparation  due  to  a  miserly  Plans  for 
economy,  and  in  spite  of  the  general  incompetency  of  g|j)enio^a~ 
governmental  officials  to  direct  a  war,  the  conflict  was  Canada. 
entered  upon  with  a  surprising  air  of  self-confidence.    This 
spirit  was  voiced  by  Calhoun,  who  declared  that  within 
four  weeks  most  of  Canada  would  be  in  the  possession  of 
Americans. 

Three  armies  were  brought  together  on  the  Canadian 
frontier.  One  was  to  defend  Detroit,  the  key  to  the  fur- 
trade  and  the  control  of  the  Indians  of  the  North-west. 
Another  was  to  cross  the  Niagara  River  and,  reenforced 
from  the  army  at  Detroit,  was  to  capture  York  (now 
Toronto)  and  advance  to  Montreal.  There  they  were  to 
be  met  by  the  third  army,  advancing  from  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  the  combined  forces,  after  the  capture  of  Mon 
treal,  were  to  take  Quebec. 

With  2,000  men,  General  William  Hull  toiled  over  the  War  in  the 
miserable  roads  through  the  forests  from  the  Maumee  JJ°srtth~ 
River  to  Detroit,  and  then  crossed  to  Canada  in  order  to 
take  Fort  Maiden.     He  delayed  the  attack,  however,  and 
thus  allowed  the  assembling  of  a  larger  force  of  British 


262 


American  History 


and  Indians.  Learning  that  Fort  Mackinac  had  fallen 
and  that  his  lines  of  communication  were  broken,  he  re 
tired  to  Detroit.  Followed  by  General  Brock  with  a  force 
of  1,300,  including  600  Indians,  Hull  retired  within  the 
fort  and  immediately  surrendered  (August  16,  1812). 
Thus,  Michigan  territory — the  little  garrison  at  Fort 


War  on  the  Northern  Frontier 

Dearborn  *  having  been  massacred  by  the  Indians — passed 
to  the  control  of  the  British. 

After  this  ill-fated  event,  General  William  Henry  Har 
rison  was  put  in  charge  of  the  American  forces  on  the 
Maumee  River  for  the  defence  of  Ohio.  Early  the  next 
year  a  detachment  of  600  Kentucky  troops  defended 
Frenchtown,  on  the  River  Raisin,  from  an  attack  by  the 
Indians,  but  were  compelled  to  surrender  to  a  superior 
force  of  the  British.  Barely  able  to  hold  his  line  of  de 
fence,  it  was  evident  that  Harrison  could  not  recapture 
Detroit  unless  the  English  naval  control  over  Lake  Erie 
was  overcome.  There  was  at  the  time  no  American 
squadron  on  the  lake. 

*  Chicago  now  occupies  the  site  of  this  Fort. 


The  Second  War  for  Independence  263 

After  the  capture  of  Detroit,  General  Brock  hurried  to  The  Niag- 
the  defence  of  the  Niagara  frontier.     During  October,  600  J££f  J^. 
Americans  crossed  the  river  at  Queenstown,  but  were  not 
reenforced,  and  were  compelled  to  surrender.       General 
Brock  was  killed.     A  second  attempt  to  cross  the  river  was 
likewise  a  failure. 

Nothing  was  accomplished  by  the  third  army ;  but  the  The  Cham- 
gloom  caused  by  these  defeats  on  land  was  partly  dis- 
pelled  by  the  brilliant  victories  of  American  commanders 
at  sea. 

The  first  of  these  naval  duels  took  place  off  the  coast  of  Battles  on 
Nova  Scotia,  between  the  American  frigate  Constitution,  ^2-1813. 
commanded  by  Captain  Isaac  Hull,  and  the  Guerriere, 


The  Constitution  and  Guerriere 

under  Captain  Dacres.  Within  a  half  hour  after  the 
firing  of  the  first  gun,  the  masts  of  the  English  vessel  were 
shot  away,  and  she  was  otherwise  so  disabled  that  she 
could  not  be  brought  into  port.  Although  the  Constitu 
tion  was  a  faster  and  a  stronger  vessel  with  heavier  guns, 
the  victory  was  due  chiefly  to  the  superior  marksmanship 
of  American  gunners.  Americans  were  exultant;  for  it 
was  clear  that  the  " Mistress  of  the  Seas"  was  not  invin 
cible.  During  October,  the  American  sloop-of-war  Wasp, 


264  American  History 

in  a  short  action,  about  five  hundred  miles  east  of  Chesa 
peake  Bay,  overcame  the  brig  Frolic,  but  both  vessels  were 
in  such  a  disabled  condition  that  they  were  taken  possession 
of  by  a  British  war-vessel.  Among  other  victories  which 
heightened  the  pride  of  Americans  in  their  small  navy 
were  the  capture  of  the  frigate  Macedonia,  off  the  coast  of 
North  Africa,  by  the  frigate  United  States,  Captain  De- 
catur  (October  25);  the  destruction,  north-east  of  Rio 
Janeiro,  of  the  frigate  Java  by  the  Constitution  under 
Commodore  Bainbridge  (December  29);  and  the  sinking 
of  the  Peacock  by  the  Hornet,  near  the  north-east  coast  of 
South  America  (February  24,  1813). 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1813,  Great  Britain  made 
tfce  blockade  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays  more 
effective,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  had  extended  it  to  the 
other  ports  on  the  Atlantic.  The  best  American  vessels 
were  thus  bottled  up  for  the  remainder  of  the  war.  Two 
other  events  occurred  on  the  coast  deserving  of  mention. 
The  American  frigate  CJiesapeake,  commanded  by  Captain 
Lawrence,  engaged  in  battle  with  the  Sliannon  outside 
Boston  harbor.  The  CJiesapeake,  with  a  crew  composed 
mostly  of  green  men,  was  ill-fitted  for  the  contest,  and 
within  a  few  minutes  was  disabled.  The  last  order  of  Cap 
tain  Lawrence,  who  was  mortally  wounded:  "Don't  give 
up  the  ship,"  was  unavailing,  and  the  colors  were  soon 
hauled  down  (June  1,  1813).  During  a  year  and  a  half, 
the  frigate  Essex,  under  Captain  David  Porter,  cruised 
in  the  South  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  capturing  British 
whaling  vessels  until  destroyed,  in  order  to  prevent  capture, 
in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso,  Chili  (February,  1814) 

The  British  were  astounded  at  these  defeats  by  an  enemy 
that  they  held  in  contempt.  Besides,  in  two  hundred  single 
ship  battles  with  the  vessels  of  other  nations  that  had  been 
fought  during  the  previous  twenty  years,  Great  Britain 
had  lost  only  five  ships  by  capture.  Her  officers  and 
crews  were  overconfident  and  training  had  been  relaxed. 
The  Americans,  we  are  told,  had  become  expert  gunners 


The  Second  War  for  Independence  265 

through  constant  target  practice,  while  the  British,  with 
but  few  exceptions,  engaged  in  this  drill  but  once  a  year.* 

Returning  to  the  lake  frontier,  we  find  that  the  Amer-  Perry's 
ican  squadron  on  Lake  Ontario  had  accomplished  nothing.    i^k^Erie, 
The  fate  of  the  North-west  rested  on  the  efforts  of  Com-  Septem- 
modore  Oliver  H.  Perry,  who  was  put  in  command  on     er> 
Lake  Erie.     With  great  labor,  he  completed  the  construc 
tion  of  a  fleet  of  nine  vessels,  with  which  he  was  forced  to 
meet  the  attack  of  a  similarly  constructed  but  inferior 
fleet,  under  Captain  Barclay,  off  Put-in  Bay  (September 
10,  1813).     The  outcome  was  expressed  in  Perry's  well- 
known  message  to  General  Harrison:   "We  have  met  tHe 
enemy  and  they  are  ours,  two  ships,  two  brigs,  one  schooner 
and  one  sloop."     The  advantage  was  quickly  followed  up, 
and  the  American  army  in  the  West,  aided  by  the  fleet, 
appeared  at  Detroit.     General  Harrison  pursued  the  re 
treating  British  and  defeated  them  in  the  Battle  of  the 
Thames  (October  5,  1813).     Tecumseh  was  killed,  and 
the  allegiance  of  the  Indians  to  the  British  cause  was 
broken.     Michigan  territory  was  again  controlled  by  the 
Americans. 

Meantime,  General  Dearborn  had  captured  York,  and  The  Niag- 
some  of  the  soldiers,  unauthorized,  burned  the  Parliament  *™  1 
House.  The  Americans  were  forced  to  retreat  to  the  New 
York  side  and  lost  Fort  Niagara.  During  the  summer  of 
1814,  because  of  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  the  British 
armies  in  America  were  greatly  strengthened  by  the  ad 
dition  of  veteran  soldiers  withdrawn  from  European  fields. 
More  competent  officers,  however,  were  now  in  command 
of  the  Americans,  and  the  partial  victories  at  Chippewa 
and  Lundy's  Lane  were  due  to  the  efficient  leadership  of 
General  Jacob  Brown  and  Lieutenant  Winfield  Scott. 
Later,  they  were  forced  to  withdraw  across  the  Niagara 

*  The  superiority  of  the  Shannon  over  the  Chesapeake  was  due  to  the 
discipline  and  training  to  which  Captain  Broke,  contrary  to  orders,  had 
for  a  long  period  subjected  his  men.  Roosevelt,  Naval  War  of  1812,  p. 
180. 


266 


American  History 


Mac- 

donough's 
victory  on 
Lake 
Cham- 
plain,  Sep 
tember, 
1814. 


Attack  on 
Washing 
ton,  Au 
gust,  1814, 
and  Balti 
more,  Sep 
tember, 
1814. 


American 
privateers. 


River.  While  nothing  was  accomplished  on  this  fron 
tier,  a  decisive  action  took  place  in  September,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  which  added  much  credit  to  the  American 


name. 


General  Prevost,  with  12,000  regulars,  planned  to  in 
vade  New  York  by  the  old  Burgoyne  route.  Instead  of 
attacking  the  American  army,  consisting  of  2,000  men,  at 
Plattsburg,  he  awaited  the  cooperation  of  the  British 
squadron.  After  a  hard-fought  contest,  in  the  bay,  the 
victory  of  the  American  squadron  under  Captain  Mac- 
donough  was  so  complete  that  Prevost  retreated  to  Can 
ada,  and  the  war  in  that  section  was  ended. 

Earlier  in  the  year,  Admiral  Cochrane,  in  charge  of  the 
coast  fleet,  ordered  the  destruction  of  American  property 
and  towns  in  "retaliation"  for  the  acts  of  our  soldiers  at 
York  and  other  places.  The  entire  Eastern  coast  was 
harried,  and  General  Ross  was  sent  to  capture  Wash 
ington.  He  encountered  little  resistance,  and  the  Capitol, 
the  White  House,  and  many  other  public  buildings  were 
plundered  and  burned.  Two  weeks  afterward,  Baltimore 
was  attacked,  but  the  Americans  maintained  their  defence. 
General  Ross  was  killed,  and  the  bombardment  of  Fort 
McHenry  also  proving  a  failure,  the  British  withdrew  from 
the  Chesapeake.* 

Although  American  foreign  trade  was  cut  off  by  the 
blockade,  terrific  blows  were  struck  at  the  commerce  of 
Great  Britain  by  privateersmen.  Americans  in  this  way 
made  their  otherwise  idle  ships  sources  of  profit.  Over 
500  of  these  armed  ships  scoured  the  seas,  capturing  mer 
chantmen  even  on  the  coast  of  Great  Britain.  Because 
of  these  depredations,  insurance  rates  on  English  vessels 
were  made  excessive,  and  public  meetings  of  tradesmen 
and  ship-owners  demanded  the  termination  of  the  war. 
Before  the  news  reached  Washington  that  peace  had  been 
concluded,  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans  was  fought. 

*  During  the  bombardment,  Francis  Scott  Key,  prisoner  for  the  time 
on  a  British  vessel,  composed  The  Star  Spangled  Banner. 


The  Second  War  for  Independence  267 

To  General  Edward    Pakenham,  one  of  Wellington's   Battle 
ablest  lieutenants,  with  an  army  of  10,000  veterans,  sup-  Qfrj^ns 
ported  by  a  fleet  of  fifty  vessels,  was  entrusted  the  capture  January  8, 
of  New  Orleans.     Andrew  Jackson,  having  overcome  the   l 
Creek  Indians  in  Alabama,  at  Horse-shoe  Bend,  and  in 
other  battles,  was  put  in  command  of  the  south-western 
district.     With  about  5,000  troops,  mainly  men  from  the 
West,   he  prepared   to  resist   the   British   advance,   and 
hurriedly  threw  up  defences  a  short  distance  below  the 
city.    WThen  the  main  assault  was  made,  at  daybreak,  Jan 
uary  8,  so  effective  was  the  fire  of  the  Americans  that  the 
British  were  repulsed  with  a  loss    of  2,000,  and   General 
Pakenham  was  killed.     The  American  loss  was  71. 

Four  days  after  the  declaration  of  war  between  the  United  Peace  pre- 
States  and  Great  Britain,  Napoleon  renewed  the  conflict  against  Russian68 
Russia.  At  the  time,  Great  Britain  and  Russia  were  in  alliance,  mediation, 
and  it  was  unfortunate  that  America  should  have  contributed 
to  the  support  of  Napoleonic  despotism.  In  keeping  with  the 
friendly  attitude  of  the  Czar,  Alexander  I,  toward  the  United 
States  (see  p.  255),  and  with  a  desire  to  secure  the  full  sup 
port  of  his  ally,  he  proposed  Russian  mediation  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  This  proposal  was  immediately 
accepted  by  President  Madison;  and  James  A.  Bayard  and 
Albert  Gallatin  were  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  as  associates  with 
John  Quincy  Adams  for  such  a  negotiation.  But  Great  Britain, 
having  refused  to  negotiate  except  directly,  Henry  Clay  and 
Jonathan  Russell  were  added  to  the  Commission  for  that  pur 
pose.  After  needless  delay  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  the 
joint  Commission  met  at  Ghent  during  the  summer  of  1814. 

The  treaty  finally  agreed  upon  provided  for  the  mutual  Treaty  of 
restoration  of  all  conquered  territory  and  for  commissions    is  14.  ' 
to  settle  the  boundary  disputes.     The  rights  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States  to  fish  on  the  shores  of  British  America, 
which  had  been  granted  in  the  treaty  of  1783  were  not  re 
newed,  and  this  continued  to  be  a  source  of  disturbance 
until  1818.     Our  commissioners  were  obliged  to  waive  the 
question  of  impressment,  but  with  the  coming  of  general 
peace  in    Europe  Great    Britain    ceased    this  obnoxious 
practice. 


268 


American  History 


Opposition 
in  New 
England. 


The  Hart 
ford  Con 
vention, 
1814-1815. 


Results  of 
the  war. 


Peace,  even  at  a  sacrifice,  was  at  the  time  desirable; 
for  there  was  danger  that  New  England  support  would  be 
entirely  withdrawn.  The  declaration  of  war  had  been 
carried  by  members  of  Congress  from  the  South  and  West 
in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  New  England  Representa 
tives,  who  were  ready  to  acquiesce  in  the  attacks  upon 
their  commerce  rather  than  risk  its  extinction. 

The  Governors  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  re 
fused  to  obey  the  requisition  of  the  President  for  State 
militia.  Subscriptions  to  the  national  loan  in  New  Eng 
land  were  meager  in  comparison  with  the  financial  ability 
of  that  section.  The  effects  of  the  blockade  and  the  war 
taxes  increased  this  disaffection,  and  led  to  the  calling  at 
Hartford,  in  December,  1814,  of  a  convention  of  delegates 
from  these  States  in  opposition  to  the  war.  Portions  of 
the  report  of  the  Convention  resemble  closely  the  lan 
guage  of  the  Virginia  Resolutions  (1798).  It  was  recom 
mended  that  the  States  should  adopt  measures  for  pre 
venting  the  execution  of  the  acts  of  Congress  relative  to 
enlistment  which  were  deemed  contrary  to  the  Constitu 
tion,  the  States  themselves  acting  as  judges,  and  executing 
their  own  decisions.  The  resolutions  were  not  pre 
sented  to  Congress,  peace  having  been  announced.  The 
Federalist  party  never  recovered  from  the  effects  of  this 
movement. 

The  lives  of  30,000  Americans  were  sacrificed  during 
the  war,  and  the  national  debt  was  increased  over  $100,- 
000,000.  Large  amounts  of  public  and  private  property 
were  destroyed,  and  the  general  disarrangement  of  com 
merce  and  business  burdened  the  entire  country.  On 
the  other  hand,  local  prejudice  and  selfishness  were  in 
large  measure  displaced  by  a  spirit  of  national  unity, 
aroused  by  the  achievements  of  American  soldiers  and 
sailors,  under  the  leadership  of  Jackson,  Scott,  Har 
rison,  Macdonough,  Perry,  and  a  few  other  leaders. 
In  the  succeeding  chapters  we  shall  see  that  problems 
connected  with  national  development  had  become  the 


T/ic  Second  War  for  Independence  269 

absorbing  themes  in  the  place  of  European  politics  and 
entanglements,  and  that  America  had  really  achieved 
independence. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  The  power  of  the  Speaker  over  legislation.     Government 
in  State  and  Nation,  175,  176. 

2.  Influence  of  "Young  Republicans"  in  bringing  on  the  war. 
Clay,  Am.  St.  Series,  I,  ch.  V.    Schouler,  II,  334-356.    McMaster, 
III,  427-440.     Babcock,  The  Rise  of   American  Nationality, 
50-63. 

3.  Calhoun  and  the  declaration  of  war;  his  spirit  of  national 
ism.     Calhoun,  Am.  St.  Series,  15-26. 

4.  Finances  of  the  war  of  1812.     Gallatin,  Am.  St.  Series, 
207-237. 

5.  Define  direct  taxes.     To  what  extent  have  they  been  used 
in  the  United  States?     Government  in  State  and  Nation,  186- 
188. 

6.  How  is  the  efficiency  of  the  American  navy  accounted  for  ? 
Roosevelt,  Naval  War  of  1812,  27-37. 

7.  Difficulties  in  creating  a  navy  on  the  Great  Lakes.     Roose 
velt,  Naval  War  of  1812,  221,  222 ;  254-258;  354. 

8.  In  what  way  and  for  what  reasons  did  the  nations  abandon 
privateering?     Government  in  State  and  Nation,  234,  353. 

9.  Comparative  losses   of   the   contestants    and    causes    for 
American  successes?     Roosevelt,  Naval  War  of  1812,  439-450. 

10.  Scenes  in  Washington  during  the  war.     McMaster,  IV, 
138-147. 

11.  Under  what  conditions  may  the  militia  be  called  into  ser 
vice?     \Vas  the  attitude  of  some  of  the  New  England  States 
justifiable  ?    Government  in  State  and  Nation,  237,  238.    Walker, 
Making  of  the  Nation,  243,  244. 

12.  Opposition  to  the  war.    Walker,  240-243.    Hart,  Forma 
tion  of  the  Union,  216-218. 

13.  The  Battle  of  New  Orleans.     Roosevelt,  Naval  War  of 
1812,  454-493.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  III,  No.  127.     Jackson, 
Am.  St.  Series,  44-50  (new  ed.);  38-44  (old  ed.).     Hosmer,  A 
Short  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  147-153. 

14.  Treaty  of  Ghent  and  effects  of  the  war.     Hart,  Con  tern- 


270  American  History 

poraries,  III,  No.  128.  Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  247, 
248.  Hart,  Formation,  218-222.  McMaster,  IV,  256-276. 
Schouler,  II,  477-485. 

15.  James     and    Mann.      Readings    in    American    History, 
Chapter  17. 

16.  Historical  fiction.     James  Fennimore  Cooper,  Miles  Wal- 
lingford,  and  Two  Admirals.    George  Gary  Eggleston,  The  Big 
Brother.      Irving    Bacheller,  D'ri  and  I.    Joseph  A.  Altsheler, 
A  Herald  of  the  West.     Clark  Russell,  An  Ocean  Free  Lance. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

REORGANIZATION,  WESTWARD  MIGRATION,  AND 
INTERNAL    IMPROVEMENTS,   1815-1825 

BECAUSE  of  the  embargo,  the  non-intercourse  act,  and  Tariff  of 
the  war,  the  shipping  of  the  country  was  greatly  reduced. 
Much  of  the  capital  withdrawn  from  commerce  found  a 
profitable  investment  in  manufactures.  This  tendency 
was  strengthened  somewhat  by  the  slight  protection  given 
by  the  tariff  measures  enacted  after  1789.  That  of  1812 
doubled  the  duties  on  imported  goods.  Iron  factories  and 
mills  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods 
multiplied  rapidly.  British  manufacturers,  desiring  to 
regain  control  of  American  markets  and  stifle  American 
manufactures,  began,  after  the  war,  to  pour  their  goods 
into  the  United  States.  During  the  fifteen  months  after 
peace  was  declared,  the  exports  from  Great  Britain  to 
this  country  amounted  to  $150,000,000.  Prices  were  re 
duced  and  the  stability  of  American  industries  was  en 
dangered.  Influenced  by  the  memorials  from  the  manu 
facturing  centres  asking  for  relief,  Congress  passed  the 
tariff  act  of  1816,  which  imposed  a  duty  of  about  25  per 
cent,  on  the  importations  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  and 
specific  duties  on  iron  products.  This  was  the  first  really 
protective  tariff.  Votes  for  the  measure  came  chiefly  from 
the  Middle  States  and  the  West.  It  was  favored  also  in 
sections  of  New  England  and  the  South,  where  it  was 

271 


272 


American  History 


Second 

United 

States 

Bank 

chartered, 

1816. 


The  Crisis 
of  1819. 


hoped  manufactures  would  be  established.  Clay  and 
Calhoun  were  earnest  supporters  of  the  bill.  Jeft'erson 
declared  at  the  time:  "We  must  place  the  manufacturer 
by  the  side  of  the  agriculturalist."  Webster,  who  rep 
resented  the  shipping  interests  of  New  England,  opposed 
the  bill. 

Efforts  to  secure  the  re-charter  of  the  first  United  States 
Bank,  failed  in  1811.  Banks  chartered  by  the  States 
began  at  once  to  increase  rapidly  in  numbers.  Many  of 
them  had  little  or  no  capital,  and  were  unable  to  redeem 
the  notes  that  they  forced  into  circulation.  In  1814, 
nearly  all  banks  outside  New  England  suspended  specie 
payments,  and  business  was  in  confusion.  Finally,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Alexander  Dallas,  then  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  a  bank  bill  was  introduced  into  Congress, 
and,  in  spite  of  Federalist  opposition,  became  a  law.  The 
new  bank  was  chartered  for  twenty  years.  One-fifth  of 
the  capital  of  $35,000,000  was  to  be  furnished  by  the 
National  Government,  and  five  of  the  twenty-five  directors 
were  to  be  appointed  by  the  President,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate.  The  main  bank  was  located  at  Philadelphia, 
and  branches  were  established  in  sixteen  of  the  other 
leading  cities.  Normal  financial  conditions  were  not  re 
stored  for  a  number  of  years. 

Confidence  in  the  future  prosperity  of  the  country  was  gen 
eral.  Much  of  the  currency,  especially  in  the  West  and  the 
South,  consisted  of  notes  issued  by  State  banks.  As  a  result  of 
the  excessive  issues  of  currency,  prices  began  to  rise  and  specula 
tion  was  encouraged.  Extravagant  prices  were  paid  for  land 
and  farms  were  mortgaged.  Manufacturers  increased  the  size 
of  their  plants  unduly.  The  use  of  luxuries  spread.  When  the 
National  Bank  took  action  to  force  the  State  banks  to  redeem 
their  notes  in  specie,  a  large  part  of  these  notes  were  seen  to  be 
valueless.  The  amount  of.  currency  was  contracted  from  $110,- 
000,000  in  181 1  to  $65,000,000  in  1819.  Prices  fell  and  thousands 
of  business  men  were  ruined.  Laborers  were  out  of  employment 
and  distress  was  general.  This  was  the  crisis  of  1819.  During 
the  next  few  years  the  problems  growing  out  of  these  conditions 
influenced  the  country  profoundly. 


Reorganization  and  Internal  Improvements      273 

WESTWARD    MIGRATION    AND   INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS, 

1812-1825 

Prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  the  movement  of  Western 
settlers  across  the  mountains  went  on  steadily.     Cheap  ^or^U)6111 
government  land  was  a  constant  lodestone.     It  could  be   is  12. 
purchased,  after  1800,  in  lots  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  at  a  minimum  price  of  two  dollars  an  acre,  of  which 
one-fourth  might  be  paid  in  cash  and  the  rest  in  instal 
ments    extending    over    four    years.     The    frontier    was 
pushed  steadily  on  by  the  force  of  backwoodsman,  pioneer 
farmer,  and  town  builder. 

The  backwoodsman,  with  or  without  title  to  the  land, 
advanced  into  the  wilderness  but  when  neighbors  began 
to  be  too  numerous,  he  sold  his  cabin  and  corn  field  for  a 
small  sum  and  "broke  for  the  high  timber."  In  the  hands 
of  the  pioneer  farmer  the  land  was  better  cultivated, 
houses  of  hewn  logs  were  built  having  glass  windows, 
roads  were  improved,  and  the  scattered  village  took 
form.  In  most  cases  he,  too,  was  ready  to  sell  out  to 
the  man  who  came  with  more  capital  and  gave  him 
the  means  by  which  he  was  able  to  gain  possession  of 
more  and  cheaper  land  farther  West.  Men  were  known 
to  sell  and  move  to  a  new  spot  five  and  six  times.  By 
1810,  Kentucky  had  a  population  of  406,000;  Tennes 
see,  262,000;  Ohio,  230,000;  Indiana,  25,000;  Illinois, 
12,000. 

North  of  the  Ohio,  the  settlers  came,  at  first,  chiefly   Routes  of 
from    Kentucky    and    Tennessee.     Migration    continued   travel- 
along  the  Alleghany  valleys   and  the  other  established 
routes    (p.    172).     From    South    Carolina    and    Georgia, 
settlers  passed  into  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  took 
possession  of  the  cotton  lands. 

Two  main  roads  led  from  New  England:  (1)  From  Al 
bany  along  the  Mohawk  valley  to  Lake  Erie;  and  (2) 
from  the  Hudson  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Alleghany 
River  and  thence  to  Pittsburg. 


274  American  History 

^vei  Freight  and  passengers,  both  at  so  much  a  pound,  were 

carried  in  the  great  "Conestoga"  wagons,  which  were 
drawn  by  from  four  to  six  horses.*  Many  settlers  went 
on  foot,  placing  their  household  goods  on  the  backs  of 
horses,  or  the  men  carried  their  own  slender  stock.  Even 
the  best  roads  were  at  times  almost  impassable.  Private 
corporations,  in  a  number  of  the  States,  had  begun  to  con 
struct  " turnpikes"  by  the  end  of  the  century.  The  prob 
lem  of  improving  communication  between  the  East  and 
the  West  was  constantly  under  discussion.  Baltimore, 
Philadelphia,  and  New  York  were  rivals  for  Western  trade, 
and  a  road  was  demanded  across  the  mountains  which 
would  be  beyond  the  ability  of  private  capital  to  construct. 
£Sdborr"  In  1806'  Congress  appropriated  $30,000  for  the  con- 

National  struction  of  a  road  west  from  Cumberland,  Maryland,  to 
Road-  the  Ohio.  It  was  believed  that  better  means  of  communi 
cation  would  hasten  the  sales  of  public  lands.  Work  on 
the  road  was  not  begun  until  1811.  By  1820,  it  was  com 
pleted  to  Wheeling,  and  was  extended  to  Columbus,  to  In 
dianapolis,  and  to  Vandalia,  at  that  time  the  capital  of 
Illinois.  It  made  transportation  easier,  for  it  was  built  of 
crushed  stone  (the  Western  part  was  macadamized),  the 
grades  were  reduced,  and  good  bridges  were  constructed. 
Between  1806  and  1838  sixty  appropriations  (amounting 
to  nearly  $7,000,000)  were  made  for  this  road.  Opposition 
to  giving  Federal  aid  to  such  enterprises  developed;  its 
place  was  gradually  taken  by  railroads;  and  by  1856  Con 
gress  had  given  it  over  to  the  States  through  which  it  ran. 
River  At  Pittsburg  or  Wheeling  settlers  took  passage  on  one 

of  the  many  sorts  of  water-craft.  Barges  and  flat-boats 
were  common.  In  1811,  there  were  four  hundred  keel- 
boats  on  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries.  These  boats 
were  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  wide  and  fifty  feet  long, 
and  were  roofed  over.  They  required  from  six  to  ten 

*  In  1805,  the  cost  was  $4.50  a  hundred  from  Baltimore  to  Pittsburg 
and  $5  from  Philadelphia.  It  required  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  days 
to  travel  the  300  miles  between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburg. 


Reorganization  and  Internal  Improvements      275 

men  to  drive  them  against  the  current,  but  were  used, 
because  of  their  narrowness,  in  going  up  the  tributary 
streams.  Freight-boats  were  taken  to  New  Orleans, 
where  cargoes  and  boats  were  sold.  The  boatmen  re 
turned  on  foot  or  horseback,  or  went  by  sea  to  Philadel 
phia  or  Baltimore.  It  was  estimated  that  twelve  hundred 


Flat-boat 

freight-boats  passed  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio  *  (Louisville) 
during  seven  months  of  the  year  1811  with  their  loads  of 
flour,  bacon,  and  merchandise  of  various  sorts.  Stories 
were  common  of  the  wild,  free,  and  at  times  riotous,  lives 
of  the  river-men,  and  likewise  of  the  dangers  from  Indians. 

A  steam-boat  was  first  used  on  the  Ohio  in  1811,  and  in  steam- 
1816  two  were  launched  on  Lake  Ontario.     The  steam-  witem 
boat  soon  became  one  of  the  most  effective  agencies  in  deveiop- 
the  development   of   the  West.      The  markets   of  New 

*  Goods  were  landed  and  carried  around  the  Falls  except  during  high 
water. 


276 


American  History 


Westward 
movement 


Orleans  were  brought  nearer,  for  it  became  possible,  as 
early  as  1817,  to  go  from  Louisville  to  New  Orleans 
in  seven  days  (1,502  miles).*  On  the  return  trip,  which 
took  twenty-five  days,  hardware,  dry-goods,  and  sugar 
were  brought  back.  These  products  had  formerly  been 
conveyed  from  Atlantic  ports  at  a  much  greater  cost  for 
freight. 

After  the  war  the  Westward  movement  was  greatly  ac- 
afteV i'sis.  celerated.  "Old  America  seems  to  be  breaking  up  and 
moving  Westward,"  wrote  a  traveller  who  passed  along 
the  National  Road  in  1817.  "We  are  seldom  out 
of  sight,  as  we  travel  on  this  grand  track  toward  the 
Ohio,  of  family  groups  behind  and  before  us."  Fifteen 
thousand  wagons,  containing  emigrants  from  New  Eng 
land,  passed  along  the  road  between  the  Hudson  and 
Pittsburg  during  the  eighteen  months  previous  to  April, 
1816. 

Commercial  prosperity  in  the  East,  as  we  have  seen, 
had  wellnigh  disappeared.  Laborers,  unable  to  obtain 
work,  crossed  the  mountains  to  points  where  labor  was 
in  great  demand  and  wages  high,  at  Pittsburg,  Cin 
cinnati,  and  other  rapidly  developing  manufacturing  and 
commercial  centres.  There  was  no  longer  continual  fear 
of  attacks  by  the  Indians.  Besides,  the  extinction  of 
Indian  titles  to  land  opened  up  extensive  areas  suitable  to 
cultivation  and  grazing.  The  great  forest  tracts  were 
valuable  for  lumber.  By  a  law  of  1820  settlers  were  able 
to  buy  from  the  Government,  for  cash,  as  small  a  tract  as 
eighty  acres  at  a  minimum  price  of  one  dollar  and  twenty- 
five  cents  an  acre.  The  iron  and  coal  mines  of  western 
Pennsylvania  and  the  lead  mines  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois 
also  attracted  settlers.  Owing  to  the  hard  times  in  Europe, 
at  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  emigration  to  America 
became  notable.  During  the  year  1817,  7,634  immigrants 
came  through  the  port  of  New  York  alone,  and  large 
numbers  of  these  joined  the  rush  Westward. 

*  Keel-boats  took  about  forty  days  down  and  ninety  up 


Motives  in 

going 

West. 


Reorganization  and  Internal  Improvements      277 

During  the  war  there  was  great  delay  in  transporting  internal 
men  and  supplies  to  the  West,  and  this  became  a  striking 
illustration  of  the  need  of  better  means  of  communication. 
The  rapid  growth  of  this  section  and  the  problem  of  reach 
ing  the  markets  served  likewise  to  create  discussion,  among 
the  men  of  the  West,  on  the  necessity  for  roads  and  canals. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Calhoun,  then  an  ardent  Nation 
alist,  Congress,  in  1817,  passed  the^'Bonus  Bill,"  appro 
priating  $1,500,000  for  internal  improvements.  "Let  it 
be  forever  kept  in  mind,"  he  said,  "that  the  extent  of  our 
republic  exposes  us  to  the  greatest  of  all  calamities — next  to 


Plan  of  the  Erie  Canal 

loss  of  liberty,  and  even  equal  to  that  in  its  consequences — 
disunion.  ...  If  we  are  restricted  in  the  use  of  our  money 
to  the  enumerated  powers,  on  what  principle  can  the  pur 
chase  of  Louisiana  be  justified  ?"  But  President  Madison 
deemed  the  measure  unconstitutional  and  vetoed  it. 

The  first  act  of  the  General  Government  for  the  improve 
ment  of  harbors  was  passed  in  1823.  This  became  an 
additional  argument  for  the  advocates  of  internal  improve 
ments.  The  solid  vote  of  the  West  carried  a  measure  in 
Congress,  the  following  year,  which  permitted  such  under 
takings  at  national  expense. 

In  the  meantime,  the  State  of  New  York,  under  the  The  Erie 
energetic  leadership  of  Governor  De  Witt  Clinton,  ap 
propriated  money  for  the  digging  of  a  canal  from  Albany 


278 


American  History 


up  the  Mohawk  valley  and  across  the  State,  363  miles,  to 
Buffalo.  Its  completion,  in  1825,  after  eight  years  of 
labor  and  the  expenditure  of  about  $7,000,000,  was  an 
event  of  great  significance.  Freight  rates  dropped  from 


LEADING  ROADS 

AND 

WATERWAYS 

1825 

Based  oo  H.S. Tanner's  Hap  of  1825  and 
6.  Annroyd.  Internal  Navigation  of  the 

United  States 
..-flood. 

—  -  Canal*  tonpletod  and  in  p rogrcis 
a^~C*mlxrland  Road 


G 


L  F   OF    MEXICO 


Leading  Roads  and  Waterways,  1825 

$32  a  ton  by  wagon  for  one  hundred  miles  to  $1  a  ton  by 
canal.  Within  nine  years  the  tolls  collected  were  more 
than  enough  to  pay  for  the  original  cost  of  construction. 
Syracuse,  Rochester,  Buffalo,  and  other  towns  on  the 
canal  developed  rapidly  into  important  commercial  and 
manufacturing  centers.  The  route  was  shortened  for 


Reorganization  and  Internal  Improvements      279 

products  of  the  North-west  to  the  sea,  and  New  York  City 
became  the  leading  American  port.  The  canal  became  also 
the  favorite  route  for  freight  and  passengers  to  the  West. 

Ohio  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1803 ;   Louisiana,   Growth  of 
in  1812;   Indiana,  in  1816;  Mississippi,  in  1817;   Illinois,  the  West' 


Under  2  whabitantt  to  the  sq.mile-.  .-.:> 
2  to  18  in/mi. 
18  to  90      " 
DO  and 
Center  of  Population 


Distribution  of  Population  in  1820 

in  1818;  and  Alabama,  in  1819.  The  population  of  the 
New  England  States  increased  thirty-five  per  cent,  in 
twenty  years ;  that  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  in 
creased  three  hundred  and  twenty-one  per  cent,  in  the 
same  period.  During  the  decade  from  1810  to  1820  the 
population  of  Ohio  was  more  than  doubled;  that  of  In 
diana  and  Illinois  more  than  quadrupled.  Alabama  and 
Mississippi  showed  similar  gains. 


280 


American  History 


Character 
istics  of 
Western 
life. 


Religion. 


Schools. 


In  the  wide  mixture  of  nationalities  commonly  spoken 
of  by  travellers,  the  people  of  the  West  resembled,  strik 
ingly,  the  United  States  as  it  is  to-day.  Immigrants 
came  from  all  sections  and  various  European  states,  and 
their  interests  were  national  rather  than  sectional.  Step 
by  step  they  possessed  themselves  of  the  wilderness. 
Their  desire  to  push  the  bounds  of  the  Nation  still 
farther  west  was  natural.  As  individuals,  they  es 
teemed  the  qualities  of  self-help,  courage,  and  loyalty,  and 
there  were  no  privileged  orders  among  them.  Each  was 
as  good  as  the  other;  for  all  had  "shared  in  the  same 
fatigues  and  privations,  partaken  of  the  same  homely  fare, 
and  in  many  instances  had  fought  side  by  side  in  defence 
of  their  homes  against  the  inroads  of  the  savages."  *  This 
spirit  of  democracy  was  notable  in  all  activities.  State 
constitutions  of  a  democratic  type  were  formed;  a  prop 
erty  qualification  for  voting  was  not  required  as  in  the 
older  States,  and  the  judiciary  was  made  elective  instead 
of  appointive. 

They  were  in  earnest  about  their  religion  as  about  every 
thing  else,  and  stood  ready,  as  occasion  arose,  to  use  their 
physical  powers  to  protect  their  worship  against  all  forms 
of  lawlessness.  Backwoods  preachers  and  "circuit  riders" 
wielded  a  notable  influence  among  these  pioneers.  The 
Methodist,  Baptist,  and  Presbyterian  denominations  were 
most  in  favor. 

They  were  aware  that  the  refining  influences  of  an  older 
society  were  lacking;  but  they  were  optimistic  for  the 
future  and  were  proud  of  their  wonderful  material  develop 
ment.  Academies  and  colleges,  some  of  them  of  good 
grade,  were  founded  early  by  the  aid  of  Government  land 
grants  and  by  private  contributions.  There  were  twenty- 
eight  institutions  of  higher  learning  in  the  West  by  1830. 
Private  schools  were  plentiful,  but  the  communities  were 
too  poor  to  establish  common  schools  even  with  the  aid 
of  the  one  section  of  land  in  each  township  set  aside  for 
*Peck,  New  Guide  for  Emigrants,  111. 


Reorganization  and  Internal  Improvements      281 

that  purpose  by  the  National  Government  (1785).  A  law 
passed  in  Ohio,  in  1824,  for  the  support  of  these  schools 
by  taxation  marked  the  real  beginning  of  the  public 
school  system  in  that  State.  About  the  same  time,  similar 
action  was  taken  by  other  Western  legislatures. 

THE   MISSOURI   COMPROMISE 

The  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  made  the  cultivation  of  Cotton  and 
cotton  profitable,  and  the  increase  of  manufactures  stimu 
lated  the  demand  for  cotton.     To  meet  this  demand,  the 
area  of  cotton-raising  extended  rapidly,  carrying  slavery 
with  it  to  the  southern  part  of  the  Mississippi  valley.* 

By  1805,  all  of  the  States  north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  had    Slavery 
either  abolished  slavery  or  had  provided  for  gradual  emancipa-    Jf01^  a 
tion.     In  1807,  the  bill  prohibiting  the  importation  of  slaves 
after  January  1,  1808,  was  passed  with  large  majorities  by  both    Article  I, 
Houses  of  Congress.     This  result  showed  the  influence  of  the    section  9, 
anti-slavery  societies,  which  were  numerous  in  Maryland,  Vir-    °  ause    ' 
ginia,  and  North  Carolina,  as  well  as  in  the  Northern  States. 

By  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  slavery  was  prohibited  north  of  the 
Ohio.  The  admission  into  the  Union  of  free  States  north  of 
that  river  and  of  slave  States  south  of  it  made  it  a  dividing  line. 

While  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  States  in  1790  had  about 
the  same  population,  by  1820  the  free  States  contained  700,000 
more  than  the  slave-holding  States.  In  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  the  former  had  a  majority  of  twenty-four  members 
over  the  latter.  But  from  the  admission  of  Ohio,  free  and  slave 
States  had  come  alternately  into  the  Union,  and  thus  a  balance 
of  the  sections  was  kept  in  the  Senate.  The  South  wished  to 
keep  this  adjustment  in  order  to  prevent  legislation  to  which  it 
was  opposed. 

Not  until  1819,  was  there  the  first  real  contest  between 
the  two  sections.  In  that  year,  the  question  of  the  ad 
mission  of  Missouri  as  a  State  came  up  for  discussion  in 

*  Good  cotton  lands  sold  for  from  $40  to  $100  an  acre  in  Alabama 
(1818).  The  sale  of  public  lands  in  that  territory  during  the  same  year 
amounted  to  $3,000,000.  The  population  of  Alabama  when  admitted 
into  the  Union  (1819)  was  48,310  whites  and  21,384  slaves. 


282 


American  History 


The  ques 
tion  of 
slavery  in 
Missouri. 


The 

Missouri 
Compro 
mise. 


Congress.  Slave-holding  had  been  allowed  in  the  Lou 
isiana  territory  when  it  belonged  to  Spain  and  to  France, 
and  was  permitted  to  continue  after  its  purchase  by  the 
United  States.  As  a  result,  planters  in  increasingly  large 
numbers,  with  their  slaves,  crossed  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Missouri  valley. 

When  the  act  for  the  admission  of  Missouri  was  before 
the  House,  an  exciting  debate  took  place  over  an  amend 
ment  introduced  by  Tallmadge,  of  New  York,  an  amend 
ment  which  proposed  that  no  more  slaves  should  be  ad 
mitted,  and  that  all  children  born  within  the  State  after  its 
admission  should  be  free  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years. 
Clay  led  the  opposition  to  restriction.  He  argued  that  if 
slavery  were  allowed  to  spread,  its  evils  would  be  lessened. 
He  denied  the  constitutional  power  of  Congress  to  impose 
on  newly  organized  States  restrictions  that  limited  their 
sovereign  rights.  Tallmadge  held  that  such  restriction 
was  constitutional.  He  attacked  the  system  of  slavery, 
calling  it  "this  monstrous  scourge  of  the  human  race 
which  threatened  the  life  of  the  Nation."  The  amend 
ment  passed  the  House  by  a  close  vote,  but  was  rejected 
in  the  Senate.  No  further  action  was  taken  during  the 
session. 

Public  meetings  and  legislatures  in  the  various  Northern 
States  passed  resolutions  against  the  admission  of  Mis 
souri  as  a  slave  State,  and  the  South  protested  against  re 
striction.  When  Congress  met  (December,  1819),  a  bill 
was  passed  by  the  House  admitting  Maine,  recently  owned 
by  Massachusetts,  as  a  State.  A  compromise  amendment 
was  agreed  upon  in  the  Senate  (1820),  providing  for  the 
admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  State,  but  in  the  remainder 
of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  north  of  36°  30'  slavery  was  to 
be  prohibited.  The  compromise  was  accepted  by  the 
House  of  Representatives.  President  Monroe  signed  the 
bills,  and  Maine  was  admitted. 

But  the  constitution  of  Missouri  contained  a  provision 
that  forbade  the  entrance  of  free  negroes  into  the  State, 


Reorganization  and  Internal  Improvements      283 

and  this  gave  rise  to  another  difficult  question.*  Through 
the  efforts  of  Clay,  a  compromise  was  accepted.  Mis 
souri  was  admitted,  but  it  was  stipulated  that  the  rights  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States  going  to  Missouri  should  not 
be  abridged. 

The  passing  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  important;  Results  of 
for  therein  was  accepted  the  principle  that  Congress  has 
the  power  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories.  But  the 
controversy  still  further  divided  the  two  sections  of  the 
country  already  separated  by  a  geographical  boundary 
line.f  Although  slavery  as  an  issue  sank  out  of  sight  for 
a  number  of  years,  it  was  becoming  more  and  more  dom 
inant  in  the  economic  and  social  life  of  the  South.  In  the 
North,  sentiment  against  the  institution  of  slavery  grew 
with  the  years. 

In  1820,  Major  S.  J.  Long  set  out  on  a  scientific  ex-  Expiora- 
pedition  from  St.  Louis  to  the  West.     Long's  Peak  was  the  "far" 
discovered  and  much  of  eastern  Colorado  was  explored.   West. 
He  described   the  region   through  which  he  passed   as 
almost  wholly   unfit    for   agricultural    purposes.      After 
1822,  traders  from  St.  Louis  began  to  cross  this  Great 
American  Desert  with  their  trains  of  wagons  and  mules 
loaded    with    goods    for   Santa    Fe,   bringing  back  furs 
and  silver. 

Trappers  and  fur-traders  were  also  penetrating  the 
regions  farther  North.  Agents  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Fur  Company  (1823-1824),  after  crossing  the  mountains 
from  the  Platte  to  the  Green  River  returned  by  way  of 
Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  South  Pass,  the  "  Cumberland 
Gap"  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Within  the  next  ten 
years,  the  chief  routes  to  California  and  Oregon  had  been 
made  known,  and  settlers  were  taking  possession  of  the 
frontier  in  the  new  North-west. 

*  In  some  States  free  negroes  were  citizens.  According  to  the  Con 
stitution  of  the  United  States  they  were  guaranteed  the  rights  of  other 
citizens.  See,  Article  IV,  section  2,  clause  1. 

t  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  and  the  Ohio  River. 


284  American  History 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Influence  of  the  War  of  1812  on  the  development  of  manu 
factures.     Coman,   Industrial  History,   180-190.     Bogart,  Eco 
nomic  History  of  the  United  States,  142-149. 

2.  Compare  the  attitudes  of  Clay,  Calhoun,  and  Webster  tow 
ard  the  tariff  in  1816.    Clay,  Am.  St.  Series,  129-131.     Calhoun, 
Am.    St.    Series,    33-35.      Webster,    Am.    St.   Series,    153-156 
(new  ed.). 

3.  Weakness  of  the  State  banks  and  the  establishment  of  the 
second  United  States  Bank.     Influence  on  the  doctrine  of  strict 
construction.     Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  226-227. 

4.  Calhoun  the  champion  of  internal  improvements.     Calhoun, 
Am.  St.  Series,  35-37.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  III,  No.  131. 

5.  Era  of  canal  construction  and  results.     Schouler,  III,  346- 
350.    Sparks,  The  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  264-269. 
Coman,  Industrial  History,  202-211.    Bogart,  Economic  History 
of  the  United  States,  189-195.     Turner,  Rise  of  the  New  West, 
224-234. 

6.  Emigration  to  the  West  after  1815.     McMaster,  History, 
IV,  381-394.     Turner,  Rise  of  the  New  West,  67-84. 

7.  Characteristics  of  men   of  the  West.      Benton,   Am.   St. 
Series,  1-20.    Roosevelt,  Winning  of  the  West,  Vol.  4,  214-257. 
Hart,  Contemporaries,   III,  Nos.  138,   140.    Century  Magazine, 
63, 102-107;  201-207.     Hosmer,  A  Short  History  of  the  Missis 
sippi  valley,  154-158. 

8.  Slavery  in  the  States  before  1820.     Burgess,  The  Middle 
Period,  39-60. 

9.  Contest   over   Missouri.     Constitution,   Art.    IV,    sect.    3, 
cl.  2.    Johnston,  American  Orations,  II,  33-62;   63-101.    Clay, 
Am.  St.  Series,  I,  Ch.  VIII.     Turner,  Rise  of  the  New  West, 
149-171. 

10.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  Chapter 
18. 

11.  Historical  fiction.    Edward  Eggleston,  The  Circuit  Rider. 
Cooper,  The  Prairie. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  NATIONALISM— 1815-1830 

EVIDENCES  of  a  growing  spirit  of  nationalism  which  National 
signified  independence  of  other  nations  and  pride  in  Amer-  ism> 
ican  development  became  more  manifest  after  the  War  of 
1812.     We  have  noted  this  tendency  in  such  legislation  as 
the  recharter  of  the  United  States  Bank;    the  tariff  of 
1816;    Congressional  appropriations  for  internal  improve 
ments;    and  in  the  growing  power  of  the  West,  a  region 
which  looked  to  the  Federal  Government  for  aid  in  its 
development. 

It  is  significant  that  this  legislation  had  been  accom-  Monroe 
plished  with  the  Republican  party  in  power.     That  this  pjSSen 
party  was  in  favor  with  the  people  is  shown  by  the  fact   ISIG. 
that  James  Monroe  received  183  electoral  votes  for  Presi 
dent,  Rufus  King,  the  Federalist  candidate,  receiving  only 
34. 

For  many  years,  Monroe  had  been  prominent  as  a  legis 
lator  and  a  diplomatist.  Although  not  in  the  first  rank 
among  the  great  statesmen  of  his  time,  he  rendered  valua 
ble  service  as  Secretary  of  State  under  Madison.  After 
the  burning  of  Washington,  he  was  also  made  Secretary  of 
War,  and  in  this  capacity  he  improved  the  conduct  of 
military  affairs. 

Shortly  after  his  inauguration,  Monroe  made  a  tour  «« Era  of 
through  the  North  and  West  for  the  purpose  of  examining  sood  feel 
the  "National  defences."     Another  object  was  to  promote  roe  re- 
harmony  between  the  political  parties.     Everywhere  the 
President  received  an  enthusiastic  welcome.     The  fusion 

285 


286 


American  History 


National 
izing 
power  of 
the 

Supreme 
Court. 


Article  I, 
section  8, 
clause  18. 

Article  I, 
section  10, 
clause  1. 


of  parties  became  so  complete  that  the  period  (1817-1825) 
has  been  called  the  "Era  of  good  feeling."  In  the  Presi 
dential  election  of  1820,  Monroe  received  all  but  one  of 
the  electoral  votes,  but  there  developed  such  a  spirit  of 
faction  and  jealousy  among  leading  men,  chiefly  within 
the  Cabinet,  that  the  next  Presi 
dential  contest  (1824)  was  one 
of  intense  bitterness. 

No  influence  was  more  not 
able  in  fostering  nationalism 
than  the  Supreme  Court  deci 
sions.*  This  tendency  was  es 
pecially  marked  during  the 
period  when  John  Marshall 
was  Chief  Justice  (1801-1835). 
Two  decisions,  among  others, 
show  this  exaltation  of  national 
power.  The  case  of  McCulloch 
vs.  Maryland  (1819)  grew  out 
of  the  attempt  by  that  State  to 
tax  a  branch  of  the  United 
States  Bank  at  Baltimore.  The 
decision  declared  that  the  establishment  of  such  a  bank, 
with  branches,  was  constitutional  according  to  the  doc 
trine  of  implied  powers,  and  such  branches  could  not  be 
taxed  by  a  State.  In  the  Dartmouth  College  case,  of  the 
same  year,  the  decision  asserted  that  a  charter  to  a  private 
corporation  is  a  contract  which  it  is  unconstitutional  for  a 
legislature  to  impair. 

Spain  refused  to  recognize  the  title  of  the  United  States 
to  even  a  portion  of  West  Florida  (see  p.  247).  The 
Spanish  possessions,  without  efficient  government,  became 


James  Monroe 

Drawn  from  a  reproduction  of  the  painting 
by  Gilbert  Stuart 


*  Associate  Justice  Brewer  declared  that  the  "decisions  of  the  Su 
preme  Court  have  always  been  in  harmony  with  and  sustaining  the 
proposition  that  the  republic  is  a  Nation  acting  directly  upon  all  its 
citizens  with  the  attributes  and  authority  of  a  nation  and  not  a  mere 
league  or  confederacy  of  States."  Scribner's  Magazine,  Vol.  33,  p.  273. 


The  Development  of  Nationalism  287 

a  refuge  for  fugitive  Indians,  negroes,  and  all  sorts  of 
criminals  and  adventurers  from  the  United  States.  A  Purchase 
body  of  Seminole  Indians,  after  attacking  some  United  i8i9.°n  ** 
States  troops,  fled  across  the  boundary  into  Florida.  In 
1818,  General  Jackson  was  sent  against  them,  and,  as 
usual,  did  thorough  work.  He  seized  St.  Marks  and 
Pensacola,  centres  from  which  the  Spaniards  aided  the 
Indians,  and  he  executed  two  British  subjects  who  were 
suspected  of  assisting  the  Seminoles.  Florida  was  brought 
under  the  military  control  of  the  United  States,  and  during 
the  next  year  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which  Spain  ceded 
Florida  to  the  United  States.  The  United  States  was  to 
pay  the  claims  of  American  citizens  against  Spain  to  the 
amount  of  $5,000,000. 

Spain  also  abandoned  her  claims  to  territory  north  and  our 
east  of  a  line  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Sabine 
River  to  the  Red  River.  It  ran  thence  along  the  Red  River 
to  the  one  hundredth  meridian;  thence  due  north  to  the 
Arkansas,  and  along  the  south  bank  of  that  river  to  its 
source ;  thence  due  north  to  the  forty-second  parallel  and 
along  that  parallel  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  agreement 
fixed  the  western  boundary  of  the  Louisana  purchase  and 
signified  that  the  United  States  gave  up  claims  to  Texas. 

The  problem  of  the  relation  of  the  United  States  to  the  Span-    Events 
ish  colonies  of  South  and  Central  America  and  Mexico  was  also    leading  to 
one  of  great  moment.     When  Napoleon  conquered  Spain  (1808),    Monroe 
the  South  American  colonies  revolted  against  the  arbitrary  rule    Doctrine, 
of  Spanish  officials.     Only  in  Buenos  Ayres  was  the  revolution 
successful.     Elsewhere,  the  colonies  accepted  the  Bourbon  King    South 
of  Spain  on  his  restoration  in   1815.     In   1817,  General    San 
Martin,  with  his  picked  regiments  from  the   La  Plata  States 
(Argentine  Confederation),  marched  across  the  Andes  and  con 
quered  the  Spaniards  in  Chili.     Peru  was  also  aided  in  securing 
independence.     Revolution  again  broke  out  in  the  North  under 
the  leadership  of  General  Simon  Bolivar.     Aided  by  Irish  and 
English  troops,   he  achieved  the  liberation  of  Venezuela  and 
Colombia.     Mexico  became  independent  in  1821,  and  Revolu 
tionary  governments  were  set  up  in  all  the  Spanish  American 
States.     Brazil  also  proclaimed  its  independence  from  Portugal. 


288 


American  History 


The  Holy 
Alliance 
and  South 
American 
indepen 
dence. 


Monroe 
recognized 
South 
American 
indepen 
dence. 


The 

Monroe 

Doctrine. 


After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  (1815),  Alexander  I,  Czar  of 
Russia  formed  a  league  of  the  chief  rulers  of  Continental  Europe, 
the  so-called  Holy  Alliance.  Their  original  resolution  to  govern 
according  to  the  principles  of  the  Christian  religion,  gave  place 
within  three  years  to  an  agreement  to  render  mutual  assistance 
in  maintaining  monarchical  governments.  In  1822,  they  agreed 
to  lend  assistance  in  the  destruction  of  representative  institu 
tions  in  Europe.  A  French  army,  sent  into  Spain,  suppressed 
an  insurrection  and  restored  the  absolute  monarch.  He  im 
plored  the  allies  to  aid  him  in  regaining  control  of  his  American 
colonies.  Great  Britain  became  alarmed  lest  such  a  plan  should 
be  carried  out,  a  measure  which  would  again  close  South  Amer 
ican  ports  to  her  ships.  Canning,  English  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  proposed  a  joint  declaration  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  (1823)  against  any  project  by  European 
Powers  to  subjugate  the  South  American  States. 

President  Monroe  had  already  recognized  their  inde 
pendence.  Sympathy  for  them,  in  their  struggle  for  lib 
erty,  was  general  in  this  country  and  commercial  relations 
developed  rapidly.  European  interference  in  affairs  on 
this  side  the  Atlantic  was  objectionable.  Besides,  Russia, 
in  1821,  had  laid  claim  to  the  control  of  the  Pacific  coast 
north  of  the  parallel  51°,  and  it  was  feared  that  Russian 
influence  would  be  pushed  farther  south. 

Upon  the  advice  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  Secretary  of 
State,  the  proposition  made  by  Canning  was  declined,  and 
President  Monroe,  in  his  annual  message  (1823)  defined 
the  policy  of  the  United  States  relative  to  European  con 
trol  in  America.  Dealing  with  Russian  claims,  the  prin 
ciple  was  declared:  "The  American  continents,  by  the 
free  and  independent  condition  which  they  have  assumed 
and  maintained,  are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as 
subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any  European  powers." 

The  message  was  not  less  explicit  on  the  question  of 
European  intervention  in  the  contest  between  Spain  and 
her  American  colonies.  After  calling  attention  to  the 
difference  in  the  political  systems  of  Europe  and  America, 
Monroe  wrote:  "We  should  consider  any  attempt  on 
their  part  to  extend  their  system  to  any  portion  of  this 


The  Development  of  Nationalism 


289 


hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety."  "In 
terposition  by  any  European  power  for  the  purpose  of 
oppressing  the  independent  American  governments,"  he 
declared,  "or  controlling  in  any  other  manner  their  destiny 
would  be  viewed  as  a  manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  dis 
position  toward  the  United  States." 

This  warning  was  effective,  and  intervention  by  the 
European  nations  was  abandoned.  In  1825,  a  treaty 
between  Russia  and  the  United  States  was  ratified.  Russia 
accepted  54°  40'  as  the  southern  boundary  line  of  her 
American  possessions.  * 

To  John  Quincy  Adams  is  probably  due  the  credit  for  wording 
this  significant  message,  but  Monroe  assumed  responsibility  for 
it.  Earlier  American  statesmen  had  proclaimed  similar  views. 
The  later  interpretation  accepted  by  Americans  has  so  extended 
the  application  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  that  the  policy  is  now 
rightly  called  the  "American  Doctrine." 

As  a  result  of  the  commercial  crisis  of  1819,  a  new  tariff  bill 
calling  for  a  large  increase  in  duties  was  proposed  (1820).  Sup 
ported  by  the  Middle  States  and  the  Ohio  Valley  States  and 
opposed  by  the  South  and  South-west,  it  passed  the  House,  but 
failed  in  the  Senate  by  one  vote.  The  vote  of  New  England  was 
divided.  The  contest  was  renewed  in  1824.  Again,  Clay  was  the 
leading  advocate  for  his  "American  Policy."  He  urged  an  in 
crease  in  duties  because  of  the  distress  pervading  the  country  and 
the  necessity  of  creating  a  home  market  for  labor,  provisions,  and 
materials  through  developing  manufactures.  Webster,  repre 
senting  the  shipping  interests  of  New  England,  contended  that 
the  manufactures  needed  no  protection  and  that  intelligence  and 
industry  asked  only  for  "fair  play  and  an  open  field."  Southern 
ers  argued  against  the  constitutionality  of  protection,  and  de 
clared  that  the  burden  would  fall  on  the  planters.  Votes  repre 
senting  the  Eastern  manufacturers  and  the  Western  farmers 
carried  the  measure  by  small  majorities  in  both  Houses  of  Con 
gress.  Duties  were  increased  on  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
hemp,  and  iron  manufactures. 

During  Monroe's  second  administration  there  was  really 
but  one  political  party.  Within  the  Republican  ranks, 
however,  there  were  a  number  of  prominent  men  who 
aspired  to  the  Presidency.  The  people  were  dissatis- 


Interpre- 
tation  of 
the 


The  tariff 
of  1824. 


290 


American  History 


Presiden 
tial  elec 
tion,  1824. 


Election 
by  the 
House. 


fied  with  the  method  of  nomination  by  a  "caucus"  made 
up  of  members  of  Congress.  The  revolt  then  begun 
against  this  system  led  to  the  present  national  nominating 
conventions.  Andrew  Jackson  was  nominated  by  the 
Legislature  of  Tennessee  and  a  State  Convention  in  Penn 
sylvania;  John  Quincy  Adams  by  the  legislatures  of  the 

New  England  States ; 
and  Henry  Clay  by 
those  of  Kentucky, 
Missouri,  and  two  other 
•States.  William  Henry 
Crawford,  of  Georgia, 
Secretary  of  the  Treas 
ury,  secured  the  Con 
gressional  nomination 
in  a  caucus  composed 
of  66  out  of  216  mem 
bers.  Political  intrigue 
and  bitter  personalities 
were  striking  features  of 
the  campaign.  Adams 
and  Clay  favored  a  pro 
tective  tariff.  Jackson 
was  a  moderate  protec- 
tionist  and  Crawford 
was  opposed  to  protec 
tion.  All  stood  for  a  National  system  of  internal  improve 
ments.  When  the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  it  was  found 
that  Jackson  had  received  99  votes ;  Adams,  84 ;  Crawford, 
41;  and  Clay,  37.  Calhoun  was  chosen  Vice-President . 
Since  no  Presidential  candidate  had  a  majority  of 
the  votes,  the  choice  between  the  three  highest  candi 
dates  devolved  on  the  House  of  Representatives  (Amend 
ment  XII).  Clay  believed  that  Adams  was  best  qualified 
for  the  position,  and  used  his  powerful  influence  in  the 
House  to  bring  about  that  result.  The  votes  of  thirteen 
States  were  given  to  Adams,  seven  to  Jackson,  and  four  to 


John  Quincy  Adams 

From  the  portrait  Ity  Jean  Baptist*  Adolphe  Gilbert, 
the  State  Department,  Washington 


The  Development  of  Nationalism 


291 


Crawford.  The  adherents  of  Jackson  declared  that  the 
will  of  the  people  had  been  disregarded  and  that  Clay, 
with  the  promise  of  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State,  had 
bargained  to  support  Adams.  There  was  no.  truth  in  the 
charge,  but  when  Clay  was  appointed  to  that  office  the 

story  lived  on  and  be 
came  a  leading  cause 
for  the  strong  opposi 
tion  to  the  policy  of 
President  Adams. 

From  his  youth,  John  John 
Quincy  Adams  had 
been  schooled  in  public 
affairs.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  became  pri 
vate  secretary  of  the 
American  Minister  to 
Russia.  He  was  ap 
pointed  Minister  at 
The  Hague  when  only 
twenty-seven,  and  con 
tinued  in  the  public  ser- 

Henry  clay  vice  as  Minister  to  Prus 

sia;  United  States  Sen 
ator;  and  Minister  to 

Russia;  as  one  of  the  Peace  Commissioners  at  Ghent;  and 
Minister  to  England.  During  the  administrations  of  Mon 
roe  he  was  Secretary  of  State.  He  was  noted  for  his  great 
talents,  his  untiring  labor,  and  his  uprightness  in  all  rela 
tions  of  life.  Every  problem  was  decided  on  its  merits 
and  never  for  political  effect.  But  severe  in  his  criticism 
of  others,  seeing  the  worst  side  of  his  associates,  not  ready 
to  take  advice,  he  could  never  become  a  great  organizer  of 
men. 

President  Adams  was  fully  aware,  when  he  assumed  Opposition 
the  duties  of  his  office,  that  the  opposition  to  him  was   Sent** 
powerful.     This  included  a  majority  of  the  Senate.     In   Adams. 


From  the  portrait  by  Edward  Dalton  Marchant,  in  the 
State  Department,  Washington 


292 


American  History 


National 
internal 
improve 
ments. 


Georgia 
and 
"  State 
Sover 
eignty," 
1825-1827. 


the  House,  the  strong  hostile  minority  was  changed 
after  the  first  election  to  a  majority.  But  he  refused  to 
build  up  a  political  machine,  and  officers,  though  person 
ally  opposed  to  him,  were  retained  in  office  at  the  expira 
tion  of  their  terms.  Antagonism  was  increased  also  be 
cause  of  the  extreme  views  of  the  President  on  the  power 
of  the  Government  to  carry  on  internal  improvements. 

In  his  first  annual  message  President  Adams  advocated 
national  appropriations  for  the  construction  of  roads  and 
canals ;  for  the  establishment  of  a  university  and  an  astro 
nomical  observatory;  for  the  improvement  of  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  manufactures.  This  aroused  hostility,  es 
pecially  in  the  South,  where  it  was  feared  that  such  loose 
construction  views  might  lead  to  the  abolition  of  the  slaves. 
About  $2,300,000  were  expended  on  roads  and  harbors 
during  this  administration,  an  expenditure  which  greatly 
exceeded  the  amount  appropriated  for  these  purposes  dur 
ing  all  previous  administrations. 

About  1820,  there  became  manifest  a  steady  reaction  against 
the  spirit  of  Nationalism  which  had  been  prevalent.  Various 
States  protested  against  the  "consolidating  tendencies  of  the 
Judiciary,"  as  Jefferson  expressed  it.  Georgia  placed  herself  in 
an  attitude  of  resistance  toward  the  Federal  Government  over 
the  question  of  the  Indians.  The  United  States  Government 
had  agreed,  in  1802,  to  extinguish  the  Indian  claims  to  any  lands 
in  Georgia.  By  a  treaty  (1826),  the  Creeks  agreed  to  abandon 
their  lands  within  that  State,  excepting  a  narrow  strip  along 
the  western  border,  on  January  1  of  the  following  year.  Gov 
ernor  Troup  maintained  that  Georgia,  by  a  former  treaty,  had 
become  possessed  of  all  this  land,  and  asserting  that  Georgia 
"is  sovereign  on  her  own  soil,"  directed  his  surveyors  to  include 
in  their  survey  the  lands  west  of  the  line  agreed  upon  in  1826. 
President  Adams  ordered  the  United  States  officers  to  arrest 
any  one  surveying  beyond  that  line.  Governor  Troup  ordered 
the  release  of  any  surveyors  who  might  be  arrested,  and  prepared 
for  calling  out  the  militia.  Congress  failed  to  support  the  Presi 
dent.  The  question  was  settled  (1827)  by  a  treaty  in  which  the 
Creeks  surrendered  the  territory  in  dispute.  In  1828,  Georgia 
also  extended  her  right  of  sovereignty  over  the  Cherokees  in  the 
north-western  part  of  the  State. 


The  Development  of  Nationalism 


293 


The  tariff  of  1824  was  unsatisfactory  to  the  manufact-  The  tariff 
urers  of  woollens,  who  were  unable  to  compete  with  the 
English  manufacturers.     The  woollen  industry  had  grown 
rapidly  in  New  England,  and  many  petitions  for  relief 
came   from    that   section.     Greater   protection    was    de 
manded  also  for  other  industries.     A  Presidential  election 
was  at  hand,  and  the  South 
desired   the   election  of  An 
drew  Jackson,  but  was  op 
posed    to   protection.      Both 
branches  of  Congress  were  in 
control  of  the  Jackson  forces. 
The    House   Committee 
brought   in  a  bill    providing 
increased  protection  for  raw 
materials,  such  as  the  wool, 
hemp,  and   iron  produced 
chiefly  in    Pennsylvania  and 
the  West.    New  England  was 
denied  the  increase  of  duties 
demanded.     It  was  believed  John  c  Caihoun 

that     the     Representatives      Of      Flom  a  Portrait  by  Nix,  in  the  South  Carolina 

-nil  1 1     •  •  state  Library 

New    England     would    join 

those  from  the  South  in  defeating  the  measure,  and  thus 
the  Adams  supporters  would  become  parties  to  its  rejec 
tion.  But  the  plan  was  not  successful,  for  enough  New 
England  votes  were  secured  in  the  House  to  carry  the 
act,  objectionable  as  it  was.  This  so-called  "tariff  of 
abominations"  was  bitterly  opposed  in  the  South,  and  it 
was  denounced,  especially  in  South  Carolina. 

The  reasons  for  opposition  in  the  South  were  :   (1)  The  Caihoun's 
price  of  cotton  had  fallen  as  its  production  had  increased   I      est' 
in  the  South-west.     The  cost  of  producing  the  crop  was 
greater  because  of  the  increased  demand  for  and  cost  of 
slaves.     (2)  The  cost  of  food  supplies  and  manufactured 
articles  for  which  they  wrere  dependent  respectively  on  the 
North-west  and  on  England  was  enhanced  by  the  tariff. 


294 


American.  History 


The  legislature  of  South  Carolina  (1828)  adopted  the 
"Exposition  and  Protest"  drafted  by  Calhoun,  which  fol 
lowed  the  principles  of  the  Kentucky  Resolutions  (p.  235). 
In  this  document  he  argued  that  protection  of  manufact 
ures  was  unconstitutional  and  urged,  since  the  Constitution 
was  a  compact  between  sovereign  States,  that  a  State  might 


The  Hermitage — the  residence  of  General  Jackson 


forbid  within  its  limits  the  operation  of  a  law  which  it 
thought  unconstitutional.  This  would  compel  the  aban 
donment  of  the  law  unless  three-fourths  of  the  States,  in 
convention,  should  sanction  it.  Thus  Calhoun,  the  former 
Nationalist,  had  become  the  real  exponent  of  sectionalism. 
Protests  against  the  tariff  of  1828  were  also  made  by  other 
Southern  legislatures. 


The  Development  of  Nationalism 


295 


The  political  campaign  of  1828  which  made  Andrew  Presiden- 
Jackson  President  was  really  four  years  in  length.  During  JSon^f C" 
the  period,  the  statement  that  the  ''will  of  the  people"  had  1828. 
been  thwarted  in  the  election  of  Adams,  and  that  there  had 
been  a  "  corrupt  bargain"  were  shrewdly  used  by  the  Jack 
son  managers.  President  Adams,  as  we  have  seen,  ad 
vocated  the  liberal  interpretation  of  the  Constitution.  The 
men  who  favored  this  policy  had  come  to  be  known  as 
"  National  Republicans."  The  opposition  had  gradually 
come  together  as  "  Jackson  men"  (soon  called  Democrats). 
But  the  most  striking  appeals  to  the  voters  in  this  cam 
paign  of  bitter  personalities  were  based  on  the  character 
istics  of  the  candidates.  Jackson  was  portrayed  as  the 
man  who  had  come  from  the  people.  That  he  was  the 
"hero  of  New  Orleans"  served  to  arouse  the  enthusiasm 
of  his  supporters.  A  leading  argument  against  Adams 
characterized  him  as  an  aristocrat  and  monarchist  and 
lacking  in  sympathy  for  the  plain  people.  The  fact  that 
Adams  was  a  trained  statesman  was  used  against  him. 


£§gj  John  Q.  Adams 
^  Andrew  Jackson 


Election  of  1824*  Election  of  1828 

*  The  electoral  votes  were  divided  in  New  York,  Delaware.  Maryland, 
Louisiana  and  Illinois.  The  marking  indicates  the  candidate  receiving 
the  highest  number  in  each  of  these  States. 


296  American  History 

To  the  adherents  of  Adams  his  opponent  was  an  unr 
trained  military  leader  and  a  duellist.  Moreover,  the 
West  favored  Jackson,  for  his  personality  appealed  to  the 
men  of  that  section.  The  loose  construction  principles  of 
Adams  were  obnoxious  to  Southerners.  There  was  not  a 
single  electoral  vote  for  Adams  south  of  the  Potomac  or 
west  of  the  Alleghanies.  Jackson  received  178  electoral 
votes  and  Adams  83.  Of  the  popular  votes,  Jackson  had 
647,276  against  508,064  for  Adams.  Calhoun  was  reelected 
Vice-President. 

SUGGESTIVE  REFERENCES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  The  growth  of  national   consciousness.     Walker,  Making 
of  the  Nation,  264-273. 

2.  Social  Conditions,  1820.     McMaster,  IV,  522-549. 

3.  In  what  ways  did  the  Supreme  Court  decisions  strengthen 
Nationalism?    Marshall,  Am.  St.  Series,  Chapter  10.    Webster, 
Am.  St.  Series,  Ch.  3.    Hart,  Formation,  234-236. 

4.  Did  the  "Holy  Alliance"  profess  to  maintain  monarchical 
government?     Hart,  Contemporaries,  III,  No.  142. 

5.  In  what  forms  were  the  principles  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
stated  earlier  than  1823?     American  History  Leaflets,  No.  4. 
Monroe,  Am.  St.  Series,  162-170. 

6.  The  leading  points  in  the  Monroe  Doctrine.     Hart,  Con 
temporaries,  III,    No.   147.      MacDonald,  Select    Documents, 
No.  43.     American  History  Leaflets,  No.  4. 

7.  Early  career  of  John  Quincy  Adams.     Adams,  Am.  St. 
Series,  Chapter  I. 

8.  The  election  of  1824  and  evidence  of  "corrupt  bargain." 
How  would  you  have  voted  in  this  election,  and  why?     John 
Quincy  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  162-188.     Clay,    Am.  St.  Series, 
Chapter  X.    Jackson,  Am.  St.  Series,  Chapter  IV. 

9.  The  Panama  Congress.     Hart,  Formation,  252,  253. 

10.  The  tariff  of  1828.     Hart,  Formation,  257,  258.      Bur 
gess,  The  Middle  Period,  159-162.    Calhoun,  Am.  St.  Series,  76- 
82.    Webster,  Am.  St.  Series,  Chapter  VI. 

11.  Triumph  of  Jackson.     Schouler,  III,  409-420.    Jackson, 
Am.  St.  Series,  145-150.     J.  Q.  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  208-218. 
MacDonald,  Jacksonian  Democracy,  28-42. 

12.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  Ch.  19. 


uo 


Longitude  100 


CANALS  AND  RAILROADS 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 
1840 

Based  on  H.S.Tanner's  Map  of  1810 
Canals 
ailroads 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY  AND  THE  INCREASE  OF 
SECTIONAL   FEELING— 1830-1845 

SENATOR  THOMAS  H.  BENTON  of  Missouri  declared  that  Jacksonian 
the  election  of  Jackson  was  a  "triumph  of  Democratic  racy°C 
principles,  and  an  assertion  of  the  people's  right  to  govern 
themselves."  What  had  given  rise  to  this  sentiment  of 
democracy?  Individual  energy  and  enterprise  on  the 
part  of  Americans,  under  most  favorable  conditions,  had 
produced  notable  results.  The  spirit  of  self-confidence 
was  prevalent  and  asserted  itself  in  society  and  politics. 
To  this  new  society,  titles,  ceremonies,  and  social  distinc 
tions  were  distasteful.  The  democracy  of  Jefferson  was 
likewise  based  on  confidence  in  the  people,  but  training 
and  experience  were  regarded  as  essential  qualities  for  the 
holders  of  public  office.  The  democracy  of  1830  asserted 
that  the  election  of  Jackson  would  mean  the  retirement  of 
trained  leaders  from  the  control  of  the  Government. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  era  of  democracy  the  in-    influence 
fluence  of  the  West  was  conspicuous,  for  the  principles  of   west. 
Democratic  government  had  progressed  most  rapidly  in 
that  section.     It  was  not  strange  that  the  rough  and  ready, 
forceful  qualities  of  "Old  Hickory"  appealed  to  the  men 
of  the  West;   for  he  had  come  from  their  ranks  and  best 
represented  the  principles  for  which  they  stood. 

Andrew  Jackson  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  in 
teresting  characters  in  American  history.  He  was  born 
in  the  backwoods  of  North  Carolina.  Left  alone  in  the 
world  at  fifteen  years  of  age,  he  gained  a  bare  livelihood 

297 


298 


American  Hisiory 


Andrew 
Jackson. 


by  work  in  the  fields  and  in  saddle-making.  With  little 
knowledge  of  the  la,w,  he  was  admitted  to  practise  in 
1788;  and  the  next  year  he  went  to  Tennessee.  In  1796, 
he  became  the  first  Representative  of  that  State  in  Con 
gress;  and  the  following  year  he  was  elected  Senator, 
but  he  soon  resigned.  He  made  little  impression  in 

Congress.  Gallatin  de 
scribed  him  as  a  "tall, 
lank,  uncouth  -  looking 
personage  with  long  locks 
of  hair  hanging  over  his 
face  and  a  cue  down  his 
back  tied  in  an  eel-skin, 
his  dress  singular,  his 
manners  and  deportment 
that  of  a  backwoodsman." 
The  military  life  was 
more  congenial  to  a  man 
of  his  courage  and 
strength  of  will.  In  the 
Indian  wars  and  the  War 
of  1812,  he  showed  his 
great  power  as  a  leader 
of  men.  Headstrong,  and 
insubordinate  on  occa 
sions,  he  was  likewise  noted  for  graceful  manners,  gener 
osity  and  elevation  of  mind,  sympathy  with  suffering,  and 
absolute  honesty.  His  hatred  of  his  enemies  and  devo 
tion  to  his  friends  were  alike  intense.  Blind  to  the  faults 
of  his  friends,  he  became  at  times  an  unconscious  agent 
through  whom  unprincipled  men  accomplished  their 
designs . 

THE   NATION   DURING  THE   DECADE    1830-1840 

Jackson  was  elected  President  of  a  nation  having  an 
area  of  over  two  million  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
nearly  thirteen  million.  Of  the  increase  of  nine  million 


Andrew  Jackson 

From  the  painting  by  Sully  (1825),  in  the  Corcoran 
Gallery,  Washington 


The  New  Democracy 


299 


during  the  years  since  1789,  only  about  400,000  were  im 
migrants.  There  were  nearly  two  million  slaves.  Over  Growth  of 
three  million  of  people  were  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
Because  of  the  development  of  manufacturing  and 
commercial  interests,  the  growth  of  cities  was  be 
coming  more 
marked  in  the 
Northern  States. 
In  the  thirty-two 
cities,  with  over 
eight  thousand 
inhabitants  each, 
there  was  not 
more  than  seven 
per  cent,  of  the 
total  population 
of  the  country. 
New  York  was 
the  largest  city 
with  a  popula 
tion  of  202,000. 
Arkansas  was 
admitted  into 
the  Union  in 
1836  and  Mich 
igan  in  1837. 

The  period  of    Industrial 

the  "reign  of  Jackson"  was  one  of  the  most  significant 
in   our  history.     It  was    remarkable,  not  alone  for   the   ment 
inauguration  of  political  control  by  the  new  democracy, 
but  for  the  industrial,  commercial,   and  social  progress 
that  has  been  characteristic  of  later  periods. 

The  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal  gave  New  York  City  canals, 
the  advantage  in  the  trade  with  the  West.     Accordingly, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1826,  began  an  extensive  system  of  roads 
and  canals,  to  connect  Philadelphia  with  the  Ohio  River 
and  central  New  York,  an  undertaking  which  was  com- 


GULF    O-F*  MEXICO 

Jnder  2  inhabitants  to  the  sq. 
2  to  18  inhab. 
18  to  90     " 
90 
Center  of  Population 


Distribution  of  Population  in  1830 


300  American  History 

pleted  in  1834  at  a  cost  of  over  $10,000,000.  Canals  were 
also  constructed  for  the  transportation  of  anthracite  coal 
from  the  mines  to  the  manufacturing  centers  farther  east. 
The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  Company  was  char 
tered  (1825)  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  Washington 
with  the  Ohio  region.  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  Gen 
eral  Government  united  in  the  enterprise,  which  was  not 
completed  until  1850.  Ohio,  in  1825,  began  the  con 
struction  of  a  canal  between  the  Ohio  River  and  Lake 
Erie  at  Cleveland.  By  1830,  there  were  1,343  miles  of 


The  First  Steam  Train  Run  on  the  Pennsylvania  State  Railroad,  1834 

canal  open  for  use  in  the  United  States,  and  in  1840  there 
were  ovei  4,000  miles  completed.  The  mania  for  internal 
improvements  became  general,  especially  in  the  States  of 
the  North-west.  In  Illinois,  for  example,  notwithstanding 
the  poverty  of  the  people,  numbering  in  1840,  489,000, 
the  State  debt  for  internal  improvements  amounted  to 
$14,237,000. 

Railroads.  As  the  canal  surpassed  the  wagon  road,  the  railroad,  in 
turn,  as  a  means  for  more  rapid  communication,  super 
seded  the  canal.  Roads  made  of  wooden  rails,  with  cars 
drawn  by  horses,  were  built  near  Boston  as  early  as  1807. 
Citizens  of  Baltimore,  fearing  that  the  Ohio  trade  would 
be  absorbed  by  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  set  in  motion 
the  plan  for  a  railroad  across  the  mountains.  A  charter 
was  secured  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  Company, 
and  work  was  commenced  (July  4,  1828).  Thirteen  miles 
of  the  road  were  completed  by  1830,  and  traffic  was  then 
begun,  the  cars  being  at  first  drawn  by  horses. 

By  1814,  George  Stephenson,  an  Englishman,  had  in- 


1143.        RAIL-ROAD  ROUTE        143, 


I1B  •BHBHBIJIIMB  OS.  11  1815. 

Hose  Trfio  pay  through  Between  Albany  and  Buffalo,  -  $  1 0.  in  the  best  cars, 

**    ^KchKave^^rr^  cushioned  an!"  feSSr*** '** 
Those  who yxy  Quraugh between.  Albany  &  Rochester,  $8.  in  the  lest  car* 

do. do. do. 6 .  SO  in  accoinodatloa  cars. 


GOING -WESL 


Leave      Albiny.          6  A.  M. 
Pau        Sehenectldr,  T,  A.  M.    3"  P.M.   9*  P.M. 
P«M        Utica,  11P.M.   9P.M.    4  A.M. 

Pus        Syracuse,       S;P.M.    2A.M.   8A.M. 
Pan       Ankara,          7  P.  M.   4  A.  M.  10  A.  M. 
Rochester,      2  A.  M.  10  A.  M.    4  P.M. 


Arrive  i 


7A.M.    3P.M.    »  P.M. 


GOING  EAST. 


4A.M.  9  A.M.  4  P.M. 
9JA.M.  3  P.M.  10  P.M. 
3j  P.  M.  9  P.  M.  4  A.  M. 


ftss       Utiea,  9if.  M.    4i  A.  M.  10  A.  M. 

Paw        S«henecU4y,  3i  X  M.  1 0  A.  M.    3  P.  M. 
Arrive  at  Albany,  5A.M.  II  A.M.   41P.M. 


Passengers  will  procure  tickets  at  the  offices  at  Albany,  Buffalo  or  Rochester 

through,  to  bo  entitled  to  seats  at  the  reduced  rates. 

Fare  will  be  received  at  each  of  the  above  places  to  any  other  places 
named  on  the  route. 


From  an  Old  Time-table  (furnished  by  the  "ABC  Pathfinder 
Railway  Guide"). 


302 


American  History 


Steam 
boats  cross 
the  At 
lantic. 


Manufact 
ures  and 
inventions. 


Organiza 
tion  of 
labor. 


vented  the  locomotive.  One  was  brought  to  America 
as  a  model.  After  a  successful  trial,  in  1831,  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  of  a  locomotive  built 
by  Peter  Cooper,  steam  quickly  became  the  chief  motive 
power  and  twenty  miles  an  hour  were  easily  attained. 
In  1835,  there  were  twenty-two  railroads  in  operation 
in  this  country  and  by  1840,  3,000  miles  had  been  con 
structed. 

The  number  of  steamboats  increased  on  the  rivers  and 
the  lakes.  In  1838,  the  Great  Western  and  the  Sirius 
were  the  first  vessels,  using  steam-power  alone,  to  cross 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Sixteen  days  were  required  to  make 
the  voyage. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  period  was  the  multiplica 
tion  of  labor-saving  and  time-saving  machinery.  Axes  and 
other  edged  tools  were  not  made  in  America  until  1826.  In 
1836,  anthracite  coal  was  successfully  used  in  the  smelt 
ing  of  iron.  Owing  to  this  discovery  and  the  more  gen 
eral  use  of  water-power,  manufacturing  towns  increased 
rapidly  in  numbers.  Between  1831  and  1840,  the  number 
of  cotton  factories  multiplied  from  801  to  1,240.  Cyrus 
McCormick,  in  1834,  was  granted  a  patent  for  a  reaper 
to  be  drawn  by  horses.  One  man,  with  this  machine, 
could  cut  more  grain  than  twenty  men  with  the  ''cradle." 
The  threshing-machine  also  displaced  the  flail.  Among 
the  other  important  inventions  of  the  time  were  the  Fair- 
bank's  platform  scales,  machinery  for  planing  boards, 
and  Colt's  revolver.  Friction  matches  also  came  into  use, 
and  the  lighting  of  houses  and  streets  with  gas  became 
more  common. 

With  the  increase  of  factories  and  the  growth  of  com 
merce,  people  tended  more  to  reside  in  the  cities.  Indi 
vidual  enterprise  began  to  give  place  to  production  by 
corporations.  Workingmen,  in  their  Unions,  demanded 
better  conditions,  and  a  Labor  Party  was  organized  in 
various  States.  Among  their  demands  were  a  ten-hour 
day  and  free  schools  for  their  children. 


The  New  Democracy  303 

State  universities,  colleges,  and  academies  had  multi-  Education, 
plied,  but  public  elementary  education,  the  boast  of  the  Mamf6 
United  States  to-day,  was  then  of  poor  quality.  Common 
schools  were  in  a  deplorable  condition.  Free  high  schools 
were  beginning  to  be  introduced  into  a  few  Northern 
cities.  Conditions  in  Massachusetts  were  better  than  in 
most  of  the  States,  but  one-third  of  the  children  of  that 
State  were  without  school  advantages.  Under  the  influ 
ence  of  the  great  educational  leader,  Horace  Mann,  Massa 
chusetts  organized  the  first  State  Board  of  Education  (1837). 
As  the  first  secretary  of  this  board,  through  his  own  un 
tiring  efforts,  he  brought  about  the  raising  of  more  taxes 
for  the  support  of  public  schools,  secured  better  text-books 
and  established  the  first  normal  school  (1839). 

Special    academies    and   seminaries   for   girls    had    in-   Girls' 
creased  in  numbers.     Some  of  these  schools  were  coedu-  e 
cational,  although  there  was  widespread  opposition  to  grant 
ing  girls  equal  educational  privileges  with  boys.     In  1833, 
Oberlin  College  opened  its  doors  to  men  and  women  alike, 
but  twenty  years  elapsed  before  another  college  followed 
this  example. 

The  period  was  notable  as  marking  the  beginning  of  the  An 
creation  of  a  new  literature.  Irving,  Cooper,  and  Bryant 
already  had  made  enduring  reputations  as  writers.  Noah 
Webster's  American  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language 
was  first  published  in  1828.  A  volume  of  poems  by  Ed 
gar  Allan  Poe  appeared  in  1827.  Whittier,  Longfellow, 
Lowell,  Hawthorne,  Emerson  and  Holmes  were  publish 
ing  their  writings.  The  first  volumes  of  George  Ban 
croft's  History  of  the  United  States  appeared  in  1834; 
and  Prescott's  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1837.  Audu- 
bon,  Agassiz,  and  Asa  Gray  were  making  their  contri 
butions  to  scientific  investigation.  The  Smithsonian  In 
stitution  was  endowed  in  1838.  During  the  decade,  Web 
ster,  Edward  Everett,  and  other  orators  of  high  rank  were 
addressing  large  public  audiences.  The  New  York  Sun, 
the  first  one-cent  paper,  was  founded  in  1833. 


304 


American  History 


Commu 
nistic 

settlement, 
Robert 
Owen. 


Besides  the  efforts  which  laborers  were  making  in  their  own 
behalf,  various  reformers  were  projecting  plans  for  their  social 
betterment.  Among  the  most  notable  of  these  experiments  was 
that  of  Robert  Owen.  He  had  established  a  model  factory 
town  in  Scotland,  and  there  had  promoted  the  first  successful 
attempt  to  limit  the  employment  of  child-labor  in  the  cotton 
mills  of  Great  Britain.  On  coming  to  America,  he  got  together 
several  hundred  people  and  established  a  settlement  at  New 
Harmony,  Indiana  (1826).  All  property  and  labor  here  were  to 
be  in  common.  The  undertaking  was  a  failure,  but  Owen  caused 
the  rapid  extension  of  such  communities.  Some  two  hundred 
were  established  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 


Brook  A  striking  attempt  at  cooperation  was  made  at  Brook 

Farm.  Farm,  Massachusetts  (1841),  with  such  members  as  Charles 
A.  Dana,  Margaret  Fuller,  George  Ripley,  Nathaniel  Haw 
thorne,  and  other  men  and  women  of  letters. 

Mormons.  The  most  successful  of  religious  communal  organiza 
tions  was  founded  in  1830  by  Joseph  Smith,  who  claimed 
to  be  an  inspired  leader  and  the  discoverer  and  translator 
of  the  Book  of  Mormon.  From  Palmyra,  New  York,  the 
Mormons,  Latter  Day  Saints  as  they  called  themselves, 
migrated  to  Ohio;  thence  to  Missouri.  Driven  from  that 
State,  in  1840,  they  established  the  "Holy  City"  at  Nauvoo, 
Illinois.  It  became  a  well-built  city,  with  a  population  of 
.15,000,  in  which  Smith  was  "  prophet,  mayor,  general,  and 
judge."  He  was  killed  by  a  mob  (1844)  and,  driven  from 
Illinois,  his  followers,  under  the  leadership  of  Brigham 
Young,  then  moved  to  Utah. 

Religious          Religion  was  exerting  a  profound  influence  in  all  com- 
manitarian  munities.     New  sects   multiplied   and   the   churches   ex- 
activities,     tended  rapidly  their  educational  and  missionary  activities. 
There  were  a  number  of  other  evidences  of  the  develop 
ment  of  the  social  conscience.     Some  of  the  States  had 
abolished  the  practice  of  imprisoning  for  debt,  and  the 
public  elsewhere  began  to  protest  against  the  practice. 
In  some  of  the  cities  special  "Houses  of  Refuge"  for 
juvenile   delinquents   were   established.     The   system   of 
uniting  solitude  and   labor  was   introduced  into  a  few 


The  New  Democracy 


305 


penitentiaries.     A    public    hospital    for    the    insane    was 
erected  by  Massachusetts. 

The  use  of  intoxicating  liquors  was  general.     In  1824, 
a  movement  for  temperance  was  begun  in  Boston,  and 


Washington,  from  a  sketch  made  about  1830 

within  three  years  a  hundred  temperance  societies  were 
organized.  Total  abstinence  was  also  beginning  to  be 
agitated. 

THE  "REIGN"  OF  ANDREW  JACKSON 

On  coming  to  Washington,  Jackson  found  the  city  full   The  Spoils 
of  office-seekers.     It  was   understood  that  his  supporters     >s 
were  to  be  rewarded  and  his  opponents  punished.     Then, 
for  the  first  time,  was  introduced  into  National  affairs  the 
corrupting  influence  known   as  the  Spoils   System.     Ac 
cording  to  this  system,  offices  secured  through  appoint- 


306 


American  History 


The 

Kitchen 

Cabinet. 


The  Web- 

ster- 

Hayne 

debate, 

1830. 


ment  are  regarded  as  rewards  for  partisan  services.  The 
usage  had  become  general  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York, 
where  State  politics  was  thoroughly  organized.  It  was 
W.  L.  Marcy,  of  the  latter  State,  who,  in  defending  the 
usage  before  the  United  States  Senate,  first  used  the  ex 
pression,  "to  the  victor  belong  the  spoils  of  the  enemy." 
Jackson  lent  his  influence  to  fastening  the  system  upon 
the  National  administration.  No  reasons  were  given  for 
removals;  officers  who  had  not  been  among  the  followers 
of  Jackson  were  displaced;  and  long  tenure  in  office  was 
even  regarded  as  an  evidence  of  corruption.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  two  thousand  removals  were  made  during 
the  first  year  of  this  administration.  The  President  was 
desirous  of  appointing  only  able  men,  but  he  was  fre 
quently  misled  in  his  selection  through  the  advice  of 
others. 

The  Cabinet,  with  the  exception  of  Martin  Van  Buren, 
the  Secretary  of  State,  was  made  up  of  men  of  inferior 
ability.  They  were  never  regarded  by  Jackson  as  his  ad 
visers  on  public  questions,  and  regular  Cabinet  meetings 
were  discontinued.  Real  power,  in  the  administration, 
was  wielded  by  a  number  of  intimate  friends  of  the  Presi 
dent,  called  by  his  enemies  the  Kitchen  Cabinet. 

The  discussion  of  the  rights  of  a  State  (see  p.  294) 
was  transferred  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and  Senator 
Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  an  orator  of  ability,  presented 
the  Calhoun  theory  of  State  rights.  He  declared,  speak 
ing  on  a  resolution  of  inquiry  into  the  disposal  of  the  public 
lands:  (1)  That  a  State  might  decide  in  a  given  case  that 
the  Federal  Government  had  exceeded  its  power ;  and  (2) 
that  a  State  government  might  "by  its  own  sovereign 
authority  annul  an  act  of  the  General  Government." 
Webster,  in  a  famous  speech,  classed  among  the  greatest 
of  world  orations,  defended  the  National  view  of  the 
Constitution.  He  maintained  that  the  Constitution  was 
not  a  compact,  but  the  "supreme  law  made  by  the  people 
and  answerable  to  the  people,"  and  denied  the  right  of  a 


The  Neiv  Democracy 


307 


tion  in 
practice. 


State  under  the  Constitution  to  annul  a  law  of  Congress. 
He  pointed  out  that  in  the  Constitution  were  enumerated 
the  powers  granted  the  General  Government,  and  that 
in  cases  of  doubt  over  the  extent  of  such  powers  the  final 
appeal  was  to  the  Federal  Judiciary. 

This  great  debate  aroused  the  people  of  the  Nation.  Nuiiifica- 
But  the  doctrine  of  nullifi 
cation  was  not  destroyed, 
and  early  took  on  practical 
form.  Congress,  in  1832, 
passed  a  new  tariff  act,  an 
act  which  was  more  moder 
ate  than  the  "  tariff  of  abom 
inations."  But  the  principle 
of  protection  was  still  recog 
nized,  and  South  Carolina, 
under  the  guidance  of  Cal- 
houn,  prepared  to  resist  its 
enforcement.  In  Novem 
ber  of  that  year  a  State- 
convention,  called  by  the 
legislature,  passed  an  ordi 
nance  of  nullification.  It  declared  the  tariff  acts  of  1828 
and  1832  "null,  void,  and  no  law,"  and  not  binding  upon 
the  State  or  its  citizens;  and  that  should  force  be  em 
ployed  by  the  Fedesal  Government  to  enforce  these  acts, 
South  Carolina  would  regard  itself  as  no  longer  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Union.  The  ordinance  was  to  go  into  effect 
after  February  1,  1833. 

The  attitude  of  the  President  was  not  long  in  doubt.   Jackson 
He  instructed  the  collector  at  Charleston  to  collect  the  fication. 
duties  on  imports,  and  ordered  General  Scott  to  protect 
him  in  that  task.     He  issued  his  famous  "  nullification 
proclamation,"    which    contained    a    warning    to    South 
Carolina.     The  laws  of  the  United  States  must  be  exe 
cuted,  he  said;    "my  duty  is  emphatically  pronounced  in 
the  Constitution.     Those  who  told  you  that  you  might 


Daniel  Webster 


308 


American  History 


Compro 
mise 
tariff, 
1833. 


Jackson's 

Indian 

policy. 


The  Anti- 
Masonic 
party. 


peaceably  prevent  their  execution  deceived  you.  .  .  . 
Their  object  is  disunion,  and  disunion  by  armed  force  is 
treason.  Are  you  ready  to  incur  its  guilt?"  Upon  his 
request,  Congress  passed  the  so-called  Force  Bill  (March 
1,  1833),  authorizing  the  President,  if  necessary,  to  use  the 
land  and  naval  forces  in  the  execution  of  the  revenue  laws. 

Calhoun  resigned  the  Vice-Presidency  and  was  elected 
to  the  Senate,  where  he  denounced  the  Force  Bill.  Defiant 
resolutions  from  Governor  Hayne  and  the  legislature  of 
South  Carolina  were  read  in  Congress.  The  crisis  passed 
after  March  2,  1833,  when  Clay's  measure  providing  for 
a  compromise  tariff  became  a  law.  This  provided  for  a 
gradual  reduction  of  the  rates  for  the  succeeding  nine 
years,  when  the  uniform  rate  was  to  be  twenty  per  cent. 
South  Carolina  repealed  the  nullification  ordinance 
(March  15,  1833). 

Calhoun  declared  that  nullification  did  not  mean 
secession,  but  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  the  terrible 
crisis  of  1860-1865  was  the  final  outcome  of  the  applica 
tion  of  his  theories. 

In  his  first  annual  message  Jackson  showed  that  his 
purpose  was  to  support  Georgia's  attitude  toward  the 
Cherokee  Indians  (see  p.  292).  They  were  to  submit  to 
the  laws  of  the  States  (Alabama  and  Mississippi  had  similar 
problems),  or  migrate  to  lands  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
He  refused  to  be  bound  by  a  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Court  favoring  the  claim  of  the  Cherokees.  "John  Mar 
shall  has  made  his  decision;  now  let  him  enforce  it!"  he 
is  said  to  have  declared.  Georgia  also  defied  the  Su 
preme  Court.  Congress,  finally  (1834),  set  aside  the 
Indian  Territory,  as  a  reservation,  to  which  most  of  the 
Indian  tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi  agreed  to  migrate. 
The  Black  Hawk  War  (1832)  and  the  Seminole  War  (1835- 
1842)  were  serious  episodes  growing  out  of  this  transfer. 

A  new  element  in  the  campaign  of  1832  was  the  appear 
ance  of  the  Anti-Masonic  party  as  a  National  organization. 
This  party  originated  in  Western  New  York  (1826) 


The  New  Democracy  309 

through  the  excitement  over  the  death  of  William  Morgan, 
who,  it  was  asserted,  had  been  killed  because, of  his  dis 
closure  of  the  secrets  of  Masonry.  The  national  nominat 
ing  convention  originated  in  the  convention  in  which  the 
Anti-Masons  nominated  William  Wirt  for  President 
(1831).* 

The  National  Republicans  also  met  in  National  conven-  Jackson 
tion  and  nominated  Henry  Clay  and  John  Sargent.     Jack-   p^gMen 
son  and  Van  Buren  were  nominated  in  the  National  conven-   1832- 
tion  of  the  Democratic  party  (1832).     Jackson  was  tri 
umphantly  reelected,  receiving  219  of  the  286  electoral 
votes.     Clay's  followers  based  their  appeal  on  his  efforts 
in  favor  of  the  protective  tariff  and  internal  improvements. 
More  than  any  other,  the  United  States  Bank  advocated 
in  the  platform  of  the  anti-administration  party  was  made 
an  issue. 

Jackson's  first  annual  message  (1829)  had  contained  an  Jackson 
attack  on  the  bank.  Notwithstanding  a  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  he  declared  (1)  its  establishment  un 
constitutional;  and  (2)  that  it  failed  to  provide  a  uni 
form  and  sound  currency  although  the  currency  of  the 
country  had  never  before  been  in  as  good  condition.  In  his 
subsequent  messages  a  similar  attitude  was  manifested. 
Friends  of  the  bank  hastened  the  contest  by  applying  for 
a  new  charter  (1832)  four  years  before  the  old  one  ex 
pired.  After  a  heated  discussion  a  bill  granting  the  re 
newal  of  the  charter  passed  both  Houses  of  Congress. 
The  veto  message  of  the  President  aroused  the  whole 
country.  Among  others,  the  reasons  given  for  the  veto 
were:  (1)  That  the  bank  was  "a  great  monopoly"  with 
benefits  for  the  few  and  in  which  the  masses  had  no 
share;  (2)  that  it  was  unconstitutional,  mismanaged,  and 
unsound.  A  vote  in  the  Senate  on  the  veto  failed  of  the 

*  The  call  for  the  convention  provided  for  as  many  delegates  from 
each  State  as  there  were  Senators  and  Representatives  from  the  State 
in  Congress.  There  were  delegates  appointed  from  ten  States  and  the 
Territory  of  Michigan.  An  "address  to  the  people"  marks  the  use  also 
of  the  first  formal  party  platform. 


310  American  History 

necessary  two-thirds.  The  campaign  issue,  Jackson  or 
the  bank,  then  went  before  the  people,  with  the  result 
already  shown.* 

Removal  His  reelection  convinced  Jackson  that  the  people  sus- 
1833.P°  tained  him  in  his  attitude  toward  the  bank,  and  he  con 
tinued  the  attack.  He  declared  that  it  was  unsound; 
that  it  had  gone  into  politics,  and  that,  consequently,  the 
public  funds  deposited  in  it  were  unsafe  and  should  be 
withdrawn.  It  is  true  that  funds  of  the  bank  had  been 
used  in  the  election  of  1832.  The  House  of  Representa 
tives,  however,  upon  the  report  of  a  special  committee, 
voted  (March  21,  1833)  that  the  deposits  might  be  safely 
continued  in  the  bank.  But  Jackson  had  determined 
that  the  deposits  must  be  withdrawn.  According  to  the 
charter,  the  public  funds  were  to  be  deposited  in  the 
bank  or  its  branches  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  should  at  once  lay  before 
Congress  his  reasons  for  such  an  order.  McLane,  then 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  was  opposed  to  the  removal 
and  was  transferred  to  the  State  Department.  William 
J.  Duane  was  appointed  as  his  successor,  but  he  refused 
to  take  the  required  action  and  was  removed.  Roger  B. 
Taney  was  named  as  his  successor  and  gave  the  order  for 
removal  (September  26,  1832).  This  meant  that  the 
public  money,  about  $10,000,000,  then  in  the  bank,  was 
to  be  drawn  upon  in  the  payment  of  Government  debts 
and  that  no  more  was  to  be  deposited.  Certain  State 
banks  called  pet  banks  were  selected  as  depositories. f 

*  The  argument  that  the  bank  was  a  monopoly  and  dangerous  to  the 
liberties  of  the  people  had  especial  influence  over  voters.  Great  oppo 
sition  to  the  bank  was  excited  also  by  the  State  banks,  particularly  in 
the  West  and  the  South. 

t  These  banks  were  selected  because  of  their  political  influence  rather 
than  for  their  soundness,  and  were  situated,  chiefly,  in  the  Democratic 
South  and  West. 

All  subsequent  propositions  for  the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the 
United  States  Bank  failed.  When  the  charter  expired  (1836),  the  bank 
was  continued  as  a  State  bank  by  authority  of  the  legislature  of  Penn 
sylvania. 


The  New  Democracy  311 

The  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  forced  to  curtail  its   Results  of 
loans  in  order  to  meet  the  demands  for  the  deposits.   State  moVai~  of 
banks  which  were  debtors  to  the  United  States  Bank  were  deposits, 
compelled  to  pursue  a  similar  course.     Equal  amounts 
could  not  be  borrowed  from  the  pet  banks,  and  money 
became  scarce.     Failures   in    business   ensued,  petitions, 
with  thousands  of  signatures,  asking  for  relief  were  poured 
into  Congress. 

A  heated  discussion  in  the  Senate,  occupying  much  of  The 
the  time  for  three  months,  finally  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  censures 
resolution  censuring  Jackson  for  his  action  on  the  bank  Jackson. 
(March  28,  1833).     In  his  protest  to  the  Senate  against 
the  charge  of  usurpation,  Jackson  declared  that  he  was 
not  bound  by  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  was 
independent  of  both  Congress  and  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  persistent  demands  of  Senator  Benton  caused  the 
expunging    of    the   resolution   of   censure    (January    16, 
1837). 

During  this  period  of  excitement,  in  which  the  President  was    Origin  of 
accused  of  '* tyrannical  and  dictatorial  conduct"  and  disregard    tne  Whig 
for  the   Constitution  and  the  laws,   the  National  Republican    Party- 
party  took  the  name  Whig.     "Whig  was  the  name  by  which 
the  patriots  of  the  Revolution  were  known  and  was  synonymous 
with  a  friend  of  liberty  and  an  opponent  of  arbitrary  govern 
ment."* 

The  hope  of  securing  a  share  of  the  deposits  induced  a  Specula- 
mania  for  the  formation  of  banks.  Between  1829-1837,  tion' 
the  number  of  State  banks  increased  from  329  to  788. 
These  banks,  many  of  them  with  little  or  no  capital, 
flooded  the  country  with  their  notes.  There  was  a  general 
rise  in  prices;  the  rage  for  speculation  became  wide 
spread  and  extended,  especially,  to  city  property  and 
western  lands.  Everybody  seemed  to  be  getting  rich. 
Many  of  the  States  became  heavy  borrowers  at  home  and 
abroad  to  aid  in  building  canals  and  railroads  which  were 
already  projected  beyond  the  needs  of  the  country. 

*  Sargent,  Public  Men  and  Events,  I,  262. 


312 


American  History 


Distribu 
tion  of  the 
surplus 
revenue. 


The 

specie 

circular. 


Election  of 
Martin 
Van  Buren, 
1836. 


The  National  debt  was  extinguished  by  January  1, 
1835.  Thereafter,  the  Government  began  to  accumulate 
a  large  surplus,  chiefly  from  the  customs  duties  and  the 
sale  of  public  lands.  Receipts  from  the  latter  source  in 
creased  from  $4,800,000  in  1834  to  $24,800,000  in  1836. 
What  should  be  done  with  this  surplus  ?  Finally  an  act 
was  passed,  providing  that  the  surplus  money  in  the 
Treasury,  after  January  1,  1837,  should  be  distributed  in 
four  quarterly  instalments,  as  loans,  among  the  States,  in 
proportion  to  their  representaion  in  Congress.  Three 
payments,  amounting  in  all  to  $28,000,000,  were  made 
and  the  distribution  ceased.  The  surplus  was  exhausted. 
As  was  anticipated,  the  money  has  never  been  recalled. 
It  was  sunk,  chiefly,  in  the  construction  of  public  works. 

During  the  years  1836  and  1837  over  36,000,000  acres  of 
public  lands  were  sold.  Payment  had  been  permitted, 
contrary  to  the  law,*  in  the  notes  of  irresponsible  State 
banks.  The  Treasury  was  soon  flooded  with  this  ir 
redeemable  currency.  A  resolution  in  the  Senate  provid 
ing  that  such  payments  should  be  made  in  gold  and  silver 
failed  to  pass  (1836).  After  the  adjournment  of  Con 
gress,  the  famous  " specie  circular"  was  issued  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  upon  the  order  of  the  President 
(July  11,  1836).  It  directed  that  only  gold  and  silver 
should  be  received  in  payment  for  public  lands.  This 
order,  as  we  shall  see,  hastened  the  inevitable  financial 
crisis.  But  the  period  of  inflation  had  almost  run  its 
course.  The  crash  came  during  the  administration  of 
Martin  Van  Buren. 

Jackson  declared  Van  Buren  to  be  his  candidate  for 
President,  and  that  was  law  in  the  perfectly  organized 
Democratic  party.  The  opposition  was  not  united.  The 
Anti-Masons  nominated  William  Henry  Harrison  of 
Tippecanoe  fame.  He  was  indorsed  by  the  Whigs  of 
Pennsylvania,  but  the  Whigs  of  Massachusetts  nominated 
Webster.  Other  nominees  were  put  forward  by  State 
*  Notes  of  specie-paying  banks  were  stipulated. 


The  New  Democracy  313 

legislatures.  Van  Buren  was  opposed  to  a  United  States 
Bank,  to  National  internal  improvements,  and  to  the 
distribution  of  public  funds.  Harrison  favored  these 
measures.  Van  Buren  received  170  electoral  votes; 
Harrison  73.  The  majority  of  Van  Buren  over  all  other 
candidates  was  46. 

The  title,  "Little  Magician"  had  been  applied  to 
the  President-elect  because  of  his  ability  as  a  political 
manager.  Even  in  his  relations  with  opponents,  he 
was  noted  for  great  social  tact  and  geniality.  He  stood 
pledged  to  "tread  in  the  footsteps  of  his  illustrious  pre 
decessor." 

High  prices  and  high  rents  had  produced  strikes  and  The  panic 
riots  before  the  election  took  place.  Van  Buren  was  of  1837> 
scarcely  inaugurated  before  the  country  was  in  the  midst 
of  the  worst  financial  panic  it  has  ever  passed  through. 
Some  features  of  Jackson's  financial  policy  were  harmful, 
no  doubt,  but  the  reckless  gambling  spirit  prevalent 
among  the  people  made  a  crisis  inevitable.  Among  the 
immediate  causes  for  this  calamity  may  be  mentioned: 
(1)  Many  banks,  deposit  banks  among  others,  especially 
in  the  West,  were  unable  to  meet  the  demands  made  on 
them  to  redeem  their  notes  after  the  issue  of  the  specie 
circular.  (2)  Business  depression  had  also  become  general 
in  England  (1836),  and  English  creditors  attempting  to 
collect  from  American  buyers  seriously  embarrassed  the 
banks  of  Eastern  cities.  English  factories  reduced  their 
output,  and  the  demand  for  cotton  becoming  less,  the 
price  fell.*  (3)  Two  failures  of  crops  in  the  Middle  and 
Western  States  (1835  and  1837)  made  it  impossible  for 
farmers  to  meet  their  obligations. 

Banks  throughout  the  country  suspended  specie  pay 
ments  (May  11,  1837).  Specie  disappeared  and  bank  notes 
rapidly  depreciated  in  value.  Failures  among  mercantile 
houses  were  widespread;  trade  relations  were  almost  sus- 

*  Cotton  was  sixteen  cents  a  pound  in  1835,  and  fell  to  ten  cents  in 
1837. 


314 


American  History 


Establish 
ment  of 
the  Inde 
pendent 
Treasury. 


Anti- 
slavery 
move 
ment. 


Abolition-^ 
ists.Lundy, 
Garrison. 


pended;  factories  were  closed,  throwing  thousands  out 
of  employment,  and  distress  ensued.  Specie  payments 
were  resumed  by  the  banks  in  1838.  The  relief  was  but 
temporary;  for  the  next  year  witnessed  an  immense 
number  of  bank  failures.  Normal  business  conditions 
were  not  restored  before  1842. 

At  this  critical  time,  President  Van  Buren  showed  real 
strength.  In  his  message  to  Congress,  called  in  special 
session  (September  4,  1837),  he  insisted,  in  spite  of  the 
clamor,  that  relief  should  not  come  from  the  Government 
but  that  the  people  must  themselves  right  the  conditions 
by  natural  methods.  Sales  of  public  lands  had  fallen  off 
greatly,  and  revenue  from  imports  had  shrunk  one-half. 
Congress  voted  to  postpone  payment  of  the  fourth  in 
stalment  of  the  surplus  to  the  States. 

The  leading  measure  recommended  by  the  President 
looked  to  the  establishment  of  the  Independent  Treasury 
or  the  Sub-treasury  system.  According  to  this  plan,  not 
adopted  until  1840,  the  Government  was  to  be  "divorced" 
from  all  banks,  and  the  public  funds  were  to  be  deposited 
in  the  Treasury  at  Washington,  and  in  sub-treasuries 
under  the  control  of  Government  officials. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  century  there  had  been  a 
gradual  extinction  of  slavery  in  the  Northern  States. 
After  the  Missouri  Compromise,  interest  in  the  anti- 
slavery  movement  seemed  to  wane.  In  the  slave-hold 
ing  States,  there  were  then  but  few  persons  who  really 
justified  the  system  of  slavery.  Sentiment  throughout 
the  South  became  more  favorable  towards  its  continu 
ance,  however,  as  .the  cultivation  of  cotton  became  more 
profitable. 

But  the  aroused  social  conscience  manifested  in  the 
various  humane  movements  could  not  remain  oblivious 
to  the  influence  of  slavery.  Benjamin  Lundy  was  the 
first  American  to  dedicate  his  life  to  the  cause  of  the 
slave.  In  his  public  addresses  he  advocated  the  gradual 
though  total  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  States  and 


The  New  Democracy 


315 


the  extinction  of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia.* 
The  same  views  were  set  forth  in  his  journal,  Genius  of 
Universal  Emancipation,  which  he  established  in  Ohio 
(1821).  Antislavery  societies,  in  large  numbers,  were 


organized  by  Lundy  in  a  number  of  the  States.  One 
of  his  converts  in  Boston  was  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
who,  for  a  short  time,  became  a  partner  with  Lundy, 
then  (1829)  publishing  his  paper  in  Baltimore.  Half-way 
measures  were  not  acceptable  to  Garrison,  and  he  began 
to  demand  "immediate  and  unconditional  emancipation." 
Returning  to  Boston,  he  determined  to  found  a  paper  of 

*  Lundy  was  in  favor  of  colonizing  emancipated  slaves  in  Hayti.  He 
never  sympathized  with  the  efforts  of  the  American  Colonization  Society, 
which  did  not  make  emancipation  a  primary  object.  This  Society, 
supported  by  reformers  and  slaveholders,  had  for  its  aim  the  trans 
porting  of  free  negroes  to  Africa.  Several  thousand  were  sent  to  Liberia. 
None  of  the  colonization  schemes  were  really  successful. 


316  American  History 

his  own,  and  January  1,  1831,  the  Liberator  appeared. 
He  declared  in  the  first  number:  "I  shall  strenuously 
contend  for  the  enfranchisement  of  our  slave  popula 
tion.  ...  I  am  in  earnest.  ...  I  will  not  retreat  a 
single  inch,  and  I  will  be  heard." 
Abolition  In  1832,  the  New  England  Antislavery  Society  was 

Societies.        „  ii_/-«'  PI  i, 

formed  by  Garnson.  A  step  farther  was  taken  the 
next  year  when  the  American  Antislavery  Society  was 
organized  at  Philadelphia.  Local  and  State  societies 
were  also  founded  and  slavery  was  denounced  as  an 
" execrable  system."  They  proposed  to  use  moral  means 
to  bring  about  its  destruction,  and  conceded  that  Con 
gress  had  no  right  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  States. 
This  doctrine  was  not  acceptable  in  the  North.  Abolitionist 
meetings  were  broken  up  by  mobs,  and  the  leaders 
suffered  personal  violence.  Garrison  was  captured  and 
dragged  through  the  streets  of  Boston,  and  his  life  was 
threatened.  In  Alton,  Illinois,  Elijah  P.  Love  joy  was 
shot  down  (1837)  because  he  persisted  in  publishing  an 
abolition  paper  Such  actions  aroused  many  who  heretofore 
had  not  sympathized  with  the  movement,  but  who  believed 
in  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press.  In  1840,  there 
were  2,000  abolition  societies  with  some  175,000  members, 
other  John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  Wendell  Phillips,  and  Theo- 

feaders011  dore  Parker  exerted  a  notable  influence  in  behalf  of 
abolition.  There  were  many  men  who  were  not  in  sym 
pathy  with  the  extreme  views  of  Garrison  and  who  con 
demned  his  harsh  language;  in  fact,  he  was  not  acknowl 
edged  as  a  leader  in  the  Middle  States  and  the  West. 
Among  others  who  were  unwilling  to  accept  his  dictation 
were  William  Ellery  Channing,  a  leading  clergyman  of 
Boston,  James  G.  Birney,  an  Ohio  editor,  and  Salmon  P. 
Chase  of  the  same  State. 

While  women  were  admitted  to  the  local  abolition 
societies,  separate  societies  for  them  were  also  founded. 
Lucretia  Mott  and  Lydia  Maria  Child  were  prominent  in 
the  movement. 


The  New  Democracy 


317 


Sentiment 
toward  • 


In  1831,  there  was  general  alarm  in  the  slave  States  because 
of  an  insurrection  in  Southampton  County,  Virginia,  led  by  a 
negro,  Nat  Turner.  The  lives  of  sixty-one  whites  were  sacri- 
ficed.  In  the  attack  upon  them  which  followed,  more  than  one  south. 
hundred  negroes  met  a  like  fate.  In  both  South  and  North  the 
words  of  Garrison  were  cited  as  the  real  cause  of  the  revolt, 

although  it  has  been 
shown  that  Nat  Turner 
had  never  seen  the  Lib 
erator.  The  legislature 
of  Georgia  offered  a  re 
ward  of  $5,000  for  the 
arrest  and  conviction  of 
the  editor  or  publisher 
or  any  person  who 
should  circulate  copies 
within  the  State.  Post 
masters  refused  to  trans 
mit  abolition  publica 
tions  through  the  mails. 

Sectional  feeling  congress 
grew  apace  after  the  •£  «» 
discussions  in  Con-  petition. 
gress,  during  the  ses 
sion  1835-1836,  over 
the  abolition  of  slavery 
in  the  District  of  Columbia.  Petitions  from  Quakers, 
asking  such  action,  had  for  many  years  been  regularly 
sent  to  Congress,  where  they  were  read,  sent  to  the 
Committee  on  the  District,  and  were  not  heard  from 
again.  Other  petitioners  took  up  the  cause,  and  in  1836 
a  controversy  arose  which  was  to  arouse  the  country  for 
years.  John  Quincy  Adams,  then  a  Representative  from 
Massachusetts,  presented  the  usual  petition  on  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  Representatives  from  the  South, 
believing  their  affairs  interfered  with  and  their  peace  and 
safety  invaded,  finally  succeeded  in  bringing  about  the 
passage  of  the  so-called  'gag  resolution."  It  provided 
that  all  petitions  and  resolutions  relating  to  slavery  should 
be  laid  upon  the  table  and  that  there  should  be  no  further 


Wendell  Phillips 


318 


American  History 


Candidates 
for 

President, 
1840. 


action  on  them.  On  many  occasions,  for  eight  years, 
Adams  renewed  his  attack  on  this  resolution  as  a  violation 
of  the  Constitution.  During  that  time,  he  presented 
thousands  of  similar  petitions,  those  of  the  year  1838 
having  300,000  signatures.  In  1844,  the  rule  was 
abandoned. 

Van  Buren  was  the  candidate  of  the  Democratic  party 
for  reelection  in  1840.  By  a  political  trick,  the  Whigs,  in 
National  convention,  set  aside  Clay,  who  was  their  acknowl 
edged  leader,  and  nominated  William  Henry  Harrison. 
He  had  taken  no  part  in  public  life  for  years,  but  the 
"odor  of  gunpowder"  was  still  about  him.  John  Tyler 
of  Virginia,  who  had  until  recently  been  an  extreme 
Democrat  of  the  Calhoun  school,  was  selected  by  the 
Whigs  for  second  place  on  the  ticket.  The  Whig  party 
had  many  adherents  in  the  South  because  of  the  oppo 
sition  in  that  section  to  Jackson's  views  on  nullification. 
They  objected  likewise  to  any  of  his  disciples.  Many  of 
the  largest  slaveholders  were  Whigs  because  of  their  op 
position  to  democracy.  Certain  sections  of  Virginia  and 
some  other  Southern  States  were  in  favor  of  protection. 
The  various  elements  in  the  party  could  not  agree  upon 
principles,  so  had  no  platform;  they  were  united  solely  in 
opposition  to  Jackson  and  his  party. 

Garrison  and  his  adherents  had  always  insisted  that  slavery 
was  a  moral  question  and  that  it  should  not  be  brought  into 
politics.  Other  Abolitionists  proceeded  to  organize  a  political 
movement  which  further  emphasized  the  fact  that  the  leader 
ship  of  Garrison  was  local.  The  Liberty  Party  nominated  James 
G.  Birney  for  President.  While  the  number  of  votes  he  re 
ceived  (7,000)  was  insignificant,  the  party  became  a  force  to 
be  reckoned  with  in  the  two  succeeding  Presidential  elections. 

Election  of  Never  before  had  there  been  so  exciting  a  campaign. 

SargenT"  "  ^or  severa^  months  the  people  gave  themselves  up  to  the 

Public  Men  wildest  freaks  of  fun  and  frolic,  caring  nothing  for  busi- 

Events,  ness,  singing,   dancing,   and  carousing  night  and  day." 

II,  IDS.  The  fitness  of  Harrison  for  President  was  little  considered. 


The 

Liberty 

Party. 


The  New  Democracy 


319 


Were  not  the  Democrats,  called  Loco-focos  by  the  Whigs, 
responsible  for  the  business  depression  ?  *  Therefore, 
"Down  with  Van  Burenism,"  was  their  cry.  The  sup 
porters  of  Harrison  led  in  making  the  most  striking  ap 
peals  to  the  eye.  They  utilized  a  contemptuous  expres 
sion  of  a  Democrat  who  declared  the  Whig  candidate 

would  be  content  with  a  log- 
cabin,  a  barrel  of  hard  cider, 
and  a  small  pension.  Log- 
cabins,  with  accompanying 
live  "coons"  and  barrels  of 
cider,  were  everywhere  in 
evidence.  "Tippecanoe  and 
Tyler  too"  was  a  striking 
watchword.f 

Great  processions,  mons 
ter  meetings,  and  barbecues, 
with  stump-speeches  by 

noted  orators,  were  general.  Of  the  294  electoral  votes, 
Harrison  received  264.  Both  Houses  of  the  next  Con 
gress  were  also  Whig. 

President  Harrison  assumed  the  duties  of  office  under  inaugura- 
trying   conditions.      The   Treasury  was   empty   and   the  Jjg^J.jfU? 
revenue  was  not  adequate  to  cover  the  expenses  of  Govern-  President 
ment.     Congress  was  called  to  meet  in  special  session  Harri?on- 

*  In  a  meeting  in  Tammany  Hall,  New  York  City  (1835),  a  "scene  of 
contest  and  confusion"  took  place  between  the  two  factions  of  the 
Democratic  party.  The  lights  were  extinguished,  but  the  men  of  ex 
treme  views  had  provided  for  such  an  emergency  by  each  bringing  with 
him  a  candle  and  a  box  of  loco-foco  matches.  An  account  of  the  dis 
turbance  and  the  lighting  of  the  candles  called  this  faction  "Loco-focos." 
The  Whigs  applied  the  name  to  the  entire  party.  Sargent,  Public  Men 
and  Events,  II,  16,  17. 

t  What  has  caused  this  great  commotion,  motion,  motion, 

Our  country  through? 
It  is  the  ball  a  rolling  on 
For  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too, 
For  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too. 

— From  a  campaign  song. 


320  American  History 

(May  31).  Clay  refused  to  be  appointed  Secretary  of 
State  and  Webster  was  given  that  honor.  The  Whigs 
having  superseded  the  Democrats,  the  rush  for  office  be 
came  fiercer  than  ever,  although  the  Whig  party  had  con 
demned  the  spoils  system  of  their  opponents.  President 
Harrison,  then  sixty-nine  years  of  age,  died  one  month 
after  the  inauguration. 
John  Tyler  For  the  first  time  in  our  history  a  Vice-President  be- 

oc  prpsi- 

dent.  came  President  upon  the  death  of  the  chief  magistrate. 

Would  Tyler  carry  out  the  views  of  the  party  which  had 
elected  him,  was  the  question  with  which  the  Whigs  were 
concerned.  At  the  opening  of  the  special  session,  Clay 
prescribed  the  programme  which  they  were  to  follow.  He 
demanded  the  repeal  of  the  Independent  Treasury  law, 
the  creation  of  a  National  Bank,  and  a  new  protective 
tariff  law.  The  first  was  quickly  accomplished. 

Two  bank  bills  in  succession  passed  both  Houses  of 
Congress,  but  Tyler  promptly  vetoed  the  measures  on 
constitutional  grounds.  Whig  leaders  were  furious  and 
every  member  of  the  Cabinet,  except  Webster,  resigned. 
In  the  next  regular  session  of  Congress,  a  new  tariff 
measure  was  passed  considerably  increasing  the  duties 
beyond  the  twenty  per  cent,  basis  which  had  just  been 
reached  under  the  compromise  tariff  of  1833.  The  Presi 
dent  vetoed  two  bills  before  one  was  presented  which  he 
could  approve  (1842).  The  breach  between  the  Whigs 
and  Tyler  was  complete.  All  efforts  to  carry  out  the  chief 
features  of  the  party  programme  were  futile,  and  Clay  re 
signed  from  the  Senate. 

The  Webster  remained  in  the  Cabinet  in  order  that  he  might 

Ashburton   bring  about  some  adjustment  of  a  long-standing  dispute 

Treaty,        Over  the  boundary  between  the  North-eastern  States  and 

Canada.     The  line  had  not  been  definitely  fixed  by  the 

treaty  of  1783  and  numerous  efforts  at  negotiation  had 

failed.     Other  questions  entered  into  the  controversy,  one 

of  the  most  serious  growing  out  of  attempts  by  certain 

American  citizens  to  aid  the  Canadian  rebellion  (1837). 


The  New  Democracy 


321 


The  boundary  situation  became  more  critical  when  Maine 
sent  troops  into  the  disputed  territory.  This  was  known 
as  the  Aroostook  War  (1839).  Peace  was  restored,  but 
there  was  still  danger  of  war.  In  1842,  a  treaty  providing 
for  the  establishment  of  a  compromise  boundary  line  was 
agreed  upon  by  Webster  and  Lord  Ashburton  who  came 
as  a  special  British  Minister  to  Washington.  The  north 
ern  boundary  line  as  far  west  as  the  Lake  of  the  Woods 
was  likewise  defined.  Two  other  provisions  of  the  treaty 
were  important.  (1)  In  order  to  suppress  the  slave-trade, 
each  nation  was  to  keep  an  armed  squadron  cruising  off 
the  African  coast.  (2)  Terms  were  agreed  upon  for  the 
extradition  of  any  one  charged  with  murder  or  certain 
other  crimes. 

The  Dorr  Rebellion  and  Antirent  troubles  are  two  more  illustra 
tions  of  the  reform  spirit  then  prevalent  (see  pp.  304,  305).  In 
Rhode  Island,  the  old  colonial  charter  was  in  force  (1842).  No 
man  was  allowed  to  vote  unless  he  held  real  estate  worth  $134 
or  property  renting  for  $7  a  year,  or  was  the  eldest  son  of  such 
a  "freeman."  A  more  liberal  State  constitution  was  adopted 
by  the  "People's  Party."  Thomas  W.  Dorr,  who  was  elected 
governor  by  this  party  attempted  to  seize  the  State  property  by 
force  and  set  up  a  government.  President  Tyler  declared  he 
would  support  the  regular  Government.  Deserted  by  his  ad 
herents,  Dorr  was  tried  and  imprisoned  on  the  charge  of  treason. 
A  new  constitution  was  adopted  (1842)  which  contained  more 
liberal  suffrage  provisions.  Dorr  was  later  pardoned. 

Large  areas  of  land  in  the  State  of  New  York  were  held 
by  a  few  persons  under  grants,  some  of  them  going  back  to 
the  old  patroon  days.  Tenants  on  certain  of  these  lands  were 
required  to  pay  a  rent  in  produce  or  money  annually  and, 
besides,  submit  to  exactions  of  a  feudal  kind.*  Rensselaerwyck, 
formerly  a  patroonship,  included  the  greater  part  of  Albany 
County  and  all  of  two  other  counties.  Some  of  the  tenants  on 
this  manor  refused  to  pay  overdue  rents  and  drove  off  the 
sheriff.  The  militia  was  sent  to  his  aid,  and  this  brought  on  the 
Antirent  troubles  (1839-1846).  The  uprising  spread  to  other 

*  Some  of  the  leases  called  for  a  payment  of  ten  bushels  of  wheat 
for  every  100  acres  and  "  four  fat  hens  and  one  day's  service  with  horse 
and  wagon  for  each  160  acres,"  a  money  payment  being  allowed  for  the 
last  two  items.  There  were  other  obnoxious  provisions  in  the  contract. 


The  Dorr 
Rebellion. 


Antirent 
troubles, 
1839-1846. 


322 


American  History 


Texas 
indepen 
dent,  1836. 


The  ques 
tion  of  an 
nexation. 


The  can 
didates  for 
President, 
1844. 


estates,  and  lawlessness  became  widespread.  The  antirenters, 
disguised  as  Indians,  committed  acts  of  violence  and  some 
murders.  The  courts,  legislature,  and  Constitutional  Conven 
tion  (1846)  took  up  the  problem.  Many  prominent  men  and 
public  opinion  generally  were  opposed  to  the  leasehold  system, 
and  finally  the  landlords  agreed  to  sell  the  lands  to  the 
farmers. 

By  the  treaty  of  1819,  the  United  States  gave  up  claims 
to  Texas  (see  p.  287).  Within  two  years  (1821),  Mexico 
had  succeeded  in  becoming  independent  of  Spain  and 
offered  liberal  grants  of  land  to  settlers  who  should  come 
from  the  United  States.  The  frontier  line  of  settlement 
had  now  advanced  to  the  Texas  border,  and  large  numbers 
of  colonists,  chiefly  from  the  slaveholding  States,  had 
crossed  into  Texas.  Too  late,  Mexican  authorities  strove 
to  check  this  immigration  of  a  people  whose  ideals  differed 
so  widely  from  their  own.  In  1836  the  Texans  seceded 
from  Mexico,  and  their  army  under  General  Sam  Houston 
defeated  the  Mexicans  at  San  Jacinto  (April  21,  1836). 

Texan  independence  was  acknowledged  by  the  United 
States  the  following  year  and  application  was  made  to 
become  annexed  to  this  country.  President  Van  Buren 
did  not  favor  the  proposal  but  when  Tyler  became  Presi 
dent  action  was  hastened.  Calhoun  accepted  the  office 
of  Secretary  of  State  expressly  to  carry  out  this  proj 
ect.  To  that  end,  a  secret  treaty  was  negotiated  (1844), 
but  this  the  Senate  rejected.  The  question  then  be 
came  a  leading  issue  in  the  Presidential  campaign  of 
that  year. 

Clay  was  given  the  Whig  nomination  by  acclamation. 
While  Van  Buren  was  favored  by  a  majority  of  the  Dem 
ocratic  convention,  his  opposition  to  the  immediate  an 
nexation  of  Texas,  which  he  feared  would  mean  a  war 
with  Mexico,  cost  him  the  nomination.  The  rule  requiring 
a  two-thirds  vote  for  nominating  was  adopted,  and  on  the 
ninth  ballot  James  K.  Polk  of  Tennessee  was  named.* 
Birney  was  again  the  nominee  of  the  Liberty  party. 

*  Polk  was  the  first  Presidential  "  dark  horse." 


The  New  Democracy 


323 


The  real  issue  was  announced  in  the  Democratic  plat-  polk 
form  as  "the  reoccupation  of  Oregon  and  the  reannexation 
of  Texas  at  the  earliest  practicable  period."  *  Owing  to  1844. 
its  composite  character,  the  Whig  party  made  no  statement 
on  the  annexation  ques 
tion.  Clay  had  declared 
against  immediate  an 
nexation,  but  in  his  Ala 
bama  letter^  written  dur 
ing  the  campaign,  he  said  : 
"Far  from  having  any 
personal  objection  to  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  I 
should  be  glad  to  see  it 
annexed  without  dis 
honor,  without  war,  with 
the  common  consent  of 
the  Union  and  upon  just 
and  fair  terms/'  Be 
cause  of  this  letter,  such 
large  numbers  of  Whig 
votes  were  alienated  in 
New  York  that  the  State 
went  against  Clay,t  and 

its  thirty-six  electoral  votes   decided  the  election.     Polk 
received  170  electoral  votes  and  Clay  105. 

To  President  Tyler,,  there  was   no  doubt  about  the  Texas 
meaning  of  the  election.     In  his  annual  message,  he  de 
clared  it  to  be  manifest  that  a  controlling  majority  of  the 

*  Since  the  treaty  with  Spain  (1819)  the  Oregon  country  had  been 
held  jointly  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  Democratic 
party  declared  our  title  to  all  the  territory  as  far  as  54°  40'  clear  and 
indisputable. 

t  Written  to  a  friend  in  Alabama,  presumably  to  influence  Southern 
votes. 

t  The  majority  of  Polk  over  Clay  in  New  York  was  5,080.  The  Liberty 
party  polled  15,812  votes  in  that  State,  three-fourths  of  them  being 
drawn  from  the  Whigs. 


Samuel  F.  B.  Morse 


324 


American  History 


Morse  and 
the 

electric 
telegraph. 


people  favored  the  immediate  annexation  of  Texas.  A 
joint  resolution  passed  both  Houses  of  Congress  (February 
28,  1845)  providing  for  the  admission  of  Texas  or  the 
renewal  of  negotiations  as  the  President  might  determine. 

Four  additional 
States,  it  declared, 
might  be  formed 
with  the  consent  of 
Texas,  from  the  ter 
ritory.  There  was 
to  be  no  slavery  in 
such  States  north  of 
36°  30'.  Tyler  did 
not  desire  further 
negotiation  nor  did 
he  wish  to  leave 
final  action  for  Polk. 
A  special  messenger  was  at  once  dispatched  to  Texas 
with  the  offer  of  annexation  which  was  willingly  accepted. 
Reports  of  Folk's  nomination  in  Baltimore  were  received 
at  Washington  by  telegraph.  The  line  had  just  been  com 
pleted,  as  an  experiment,  through  a  Congressional  ap 
propriation  of  $30,000.  This  wonderful  invention  had 
been  perfected  after  years  of  labor  and  sacrifice  by  Samuel 
F.  B.  Morse,  assisted  by  Alfred  Vail.  Further  aid  was 
denied  and  a  proposal  to  sell  the  patent  to  the  Govern 
ment  was  rejected.  Telegraph  lines  were  thenceforth 
constructed  rapidly  by  private  companies. 


Calhoun's  Office  and  Home,  Fort  Hill, 
South  Carolina 


SUGGESTIVE  REFERENCES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Social  and   Economic  conditions,  1830.     McMaster,  His 
tory,  III,  69-113.     Schouler,  History,  III,  509-531.     Wilson, 
Division  and  Reunion,  2-8.    Robert  Owen,  Larned,  History  for 
Ready  Reference,  IV,  2935,  2937.    Brook  Farm,  Larned,  IV, 
2943,  2944. 

2.  Comparison  of  Jacksonian  and    Jeffersonian    democracy. 


The  New  Democracy  325 

Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  12-21.     Benton,  Am.  St.  Series, 
64-68  (new  ed.),  70-75  (old  ed.). 

3.  Horace  Mann  on  the    Foundation    of    the    Free    School 
System.     Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  109. 

4.  E.  E.  Hale,  Memories  of  a  Hundred  Years,  II.     American 
orators  of  the  time,  342.  American  historians,  43-88. 

5.  The  "spoils  system"  becomes  a  feature  in  politics;  effects. 
Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  26-33.     Schouler,  III,  451-462. 
Jackson,  Am.  St.  Series,  187-193  (new   ed.).'     Hart,   Contem., 
Ill,  Nos.  158,  160,  162.     Government  in  State  and  Nation,  273- 
279.     MacDonald,  Jacksonian  Democracy,  43-66. 

6.  Was  there  any  justification  for  nullification  by  South  Caro 
lina?     The    "Great    Debate"    and    its    significance.     Wilson, 
Division  and  Reunion,  39-62.    Webster,  Am.  St.  Series,  169-199. 
Calhoun,  Am.   St.  Series,  74-84.      Hayne's    speech,  228-282. 
Johnston,  American  Orations,  I.     Webster's  speech,  213-228. 
Calhoun,  American  History  Leaflets,  No.  30. 

7.  Compare  the  Nullification  ordinance  with  the    Kentucky 
Resolutions,  p.  235;   with  the  proceedings  of  the  Hartford  Con 
vention,  p.  268. 

8.  Social  conditions  during  Jackson's  second  administration. 
Jackson,  Am.  St.  Series,  136-139. 

9.  Was  Jackson  justified  in  his  attack  on  the  Bank  ?     Benton, 
Am.  St.  Series,  113-130.     Jackson,  Am.  St.  Series  297-316;  339- 
363  (new  ed.),  258-272,  (old  ed.). 

10.  Compare  the  "panic"  of  1837  with  the  crisis  of  1819; 
(1)  causes,  (2)  effects.     Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  86-93. 
McMaster,  VI,  398-405.    Benton,  Am.  St.  Series,  Ch.  IX.    Van 
Buren,  Am.  St.  Series,  Ch.  VIII. 

11.  Construction    of    railroads.     Sparks,    Expansion    of    the 
American  people,  275-289. 

12.  Establishment  of  the  Independent  Treasury  system.     Was 
it  constitutional  ?     Constitution,  Art.  I,  Sec.  8,  Cl.  18.     Wilson, 
Division  and  Reunion,  97,  137,  139,  140,  154. 

13.  Leaders  in  the  abolition  movement  and  their  principles. 
Burgess,  Middle  Period,  242-277.     Wilson,  Division  and  Re 
union,  117-123.    Hart,  Contem.,  Ill,  Nos.  174,  176,  180,  181. 
Johnston,   Am.    Orations,    II,    102-114.     Larned,   History   for 
Ready  Reference,  V,  3369,  3370.    American  Colonization  Society. 
Larned,  IV,  2925, 2926.    Extracts  from  the  Liberator.    Old  South 
Leaflets,  No.  78. 


326 


American  History 


14.  Contest  over  the  right  of  petition.    J.  Q.  Adams,  Am.  St. 
Series,  243-307  (new  ed.).   Johnston,  Am.  Orations,  II,  115-122. 
Burgess,  Middle  Period,  252-277.     Hart,  Contem.,  Ill,  No.  184. 
Larned,  History  for  Ready  Reference,  V,  3375,  3376. 

15.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  Ch.  XX 

16.  Hawthorne,  Blithedale  Romance  (Brook  Farm).     E.  E. 
Hale,  New  England  Boyhood.     T.  B.  Aldrich,  Story  of  a  Bad 
Boy  (New  England).     Edward  Eggleston,  Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 
Whittier,  Anti-Slavery  Poems. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

TERRITORIAL  EXPANSION  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE 
SLAVERY  ISSUE 

PRESIDENT  POLK  was  a  man  who  could  be  counted  on  James  K. 
to  carry  out  a  party  policy  at  whatever  hazard.     His  reso-   president, 
lute  spirit  was  not  unlike  that  of  Jackson,  who  had  been   1845-1849. 
his  intimate  friend.     In  private  life,  his  standards  of  honor 
were  high,  but  his  public  career  was  marred  by  question 
able  actions,  especially  in  his  dealings  with  Mexico.     For 
seven  terms  he  had  been  a  member  of  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  (twice  elected  Speaker),  and  was  Governor  of 
Tennessee   one   term.     To   a   friend   he   announced   his 
determination  to  bring  about:    (1)  A  reduction  of  tariff 
duties ;  (2)  the  establishment  of  the  Independent  Treasury; 
(3)  the  settlement  of  the  Oregon  question;    and  (4)  the 
acquisition   of   California.     Supported   by  a   Democratic 
majority  in  both  Houses  of  Congress,  he  succeeded  in 
carrying  out  the  entire  programme. 

The  Oregon  question  first   demanded  .attention.     By  The 
the  treaty  of  1819  Spain  surrendered  its  claims  to  terri-  queft°ion 
tory  north  of  the  forty-second  parallel.     Russia  and  the  settled, 
United  States  agreed  to  54°  40'  as  a  boundary  line  be 
tween  their  possessions  (1825).     It  was  agreed  (1818  and 
1828)   that  the  country  between   these  lines,  known  as 
Oregon,  might  be  occupied  jointly  by  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States.     The  claim  of  the  United  States  to 
exclusive  control  of  the  territory  was  based  on:    (1)  The 
discovery  by  Captain  Gray;  (2)  the  expedition  of  Lewis 
and  Clark;    (3)   the  founding  of    Astoria,  a    fur-trading 

327 


328 


American  History 


Tariff  and 
Inde 
pendent 
Treasury. 


post  on  the  Columbia  (1811).  Great  Britain  advanced 
claims  based  on:  (1)  The  explorations  of  Francis  Drake 
and  other  English  seamen;  (2)  the  complete  control  of 
the  fur-trade  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company;  and  (3)  the 
construction  of  Fort  Vancouver  (1825). 

After  1825  there  came  to  be  foundation  for  more  sub 
stantial  claims  on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  American 
fur-traders  began  to  compete  with  the  great  English 
monopoly;  the  first  purely  agricultural  settlement  in  the 
Willamette  valley  was  made  by  Americans  (1832),  and 
missions  were  established  by  Marcus  Whitman  and  other 
leaders.  In  1843,  large  companies  of  pioneers  began  to 
migrate  to  this  land  of  promise.*  The  Democratic  cam 
paign  cry  (1844)  was  54°  40'  or  fight.  But  it  could  scarcely 
be  expected  that  Great  Britain  would  submit  tamely  to 
the  decree  that  the  Rocky  Mountains  were  to  constitute 
the  Western  limit  of  her  possessions,  and  for  a  time  there 
was  grave  prospect  of  war. 

More  than  once  our  Government  had  offered  to  accept 
the  forty-ninth  parallel  to  the  ocean  as  a  boundary. f  In 
1846,  the  British  Government  proposed  a  treaty  based  on 
the  use  of  the  same  parallel  as  a  boundary.  This  proved 
acceptable,  and  within  a  short  time  the  treaty  was  signed 
by  the  President  and  ratified  by  the  Senate.  J 

In  his  first  annual  message,  Polk,  a  believer  in  tariff  for 
revenue  only,  recommended  a  modification  of  the  act  of 
1842  and  an  administration  measure  became  a  law  (1846). 
Luxuries  were  to  be  taxed  from  40  to  100  per  cent.,  and 
iron,  wool,  and  ordinary  manufactures  30  per  cent.  There 
was-  an  extended  free  list.  This  act  remained  in  effect 
during  the  succeeding  ten  years.  An  act  was  passed  re 
storing  the  Independent  Treasury  (August  6,  1846). 

*  In  1843,  these  immigrants  numbered  1,000  persons  with  140  wagons; 
in  1844,  1,400  persons;  and  in  1845,  3,000  persons  in  several  companies. 

t  The  49th  parallel  had  been  agreed  upon  (1818)  as  a  boundary  from 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  mountains. 

|  The  area  of  this  Oregon  territory  was  285,000  square  miles. 


Territorial  Expansion 


329 


Mexico  recalled  her  minister  from  Washington  (March  Events 
28,  1845).     The  resolution  to  admit  Texas  as  a  State  was  war  wit 
adopted  by  Congress  and  signed  by  President  Polk  (De-  Mexico, 
cember  29,  1846).     General  Zachary  Taylor  had  already 
been  sent  with  4,000  men  to  the  Nueces  River  in  order  to 


Texas  at  the  time  of  Annexation 

prevent  any  interference  by  Mexico,  that  nation  having 
announced  that  the  annexation  of  Texas  meant  a  decla 
ration  of  war.  Among  other  causes  for  friction  two  are 
noteworthy:  (1)  Mexico  had  met  only  in  part  the  claims 
of  American  citizens  for  property  which  had  been  bought 
or  seized,  the  amount  having  been  settled  by  arbitration 
(1839).  (2)  The  Mexicans  were  aroused  over  the  aid 
given  by  Americans  to  Texas  in  her  revolution. 

Acceptance  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  of  the 


330 


American  History 


Folk's 
policy. 


Declara 
tion  of 
war,  1846. 


claim  made  by  Texas  to  territory  north  and  east  of 
the  Rio ,  Grande  finally  brought  on  the  crisis.  That 
Texas  had  any  right  to  the  territory  beyond  the  Nueces 
and  to  a  part  of  New  Mexico  is  very  doubtful.  But 
Polk  had  resolved  to  secure  the  Rio  Grande  boundary, 
also  the  Mexican  provinces  of  New  Mexico  and  Cali 
fornia,  the  latter  by  purchase.  John  Slidell  was  sent 
as  a  special  agent  to  accomplish  these  designs  by 
treaty,  but  the  Mexican  Government  refused  to  receive 
him.  Learning  that  the  mission  would  probably  prove 
a  failure  and  that  Mexican  troops  were  being  collected  at 
Matamoras  on  the  Rio  Grande,  the  President  ordered 
General  Taylor  to  advance  to  that  river  (January  13, 
1846).  Taylor  disregarded  the  demand  of  General  Am- 
pudia  that  he  should  withdraw  within  twenty-four  hours, 
and  continued  to  fortify  his  position  commanding  the 
river.  On  April  24,  a  reconnoitering  party  of  United 
States  dragoons  was  attacked  by  a  large  body  of 
Mexicans  which  had  crossed  the  river,  and  sixteen  men 
were  killed. 

The  President  had  previously  decided  on  a  message  to 
Congress  recommending  a  declaration  of  war  because  of 
the  rejection  of  Slidell.  Fortunately,  for  his  purpose,  news 
of  this  attack  was  received  in  time  to  constitute  part  of  a 
special  message  (May  11,  1846),  in  which  he  declared: 
"War  exists,  and  notwithstanding  all  our  efforts  to  avoid 
it,  exists  by  the  act  of  Mexico  herself."  Congress  and 
the  people  generally  were  inflamed  by  the  words  in  the 
message:  "Mexico  has  invaded  our  territory  and  shed 
American  blood  upon  American  soil."  Congress,  by 
an  almost  unanimous  vote,  provided  for  prosecuting  the 
war. 

As  in  Oregon,  American  pioneers  had  already  gained  a 
foothold  in  California.  The  whole  Western  region  was  des 
tined,  no  doubt,  to  come  under  the  control  of  the  United 
States.  But  it  must  be  believed  that  this  result  could  have 
been  accomplished  by  other  means  than  "goading  on  to 


Territorial  Expansion  331 

war"  *  a  nation  already  weak  because  of  internal  dissension. 
Antislavery  people  bitterly  opposed  the  war.  They  re 
garded  it  as  a  means  for  getting  more  slave  territory,  f 

General   Taylor   continued   to   advance,    and   in   two  Taylor 
severe  battles,  Palo  Alto  (May  8)  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma  RIO 
(May  9)  defeated  the  Mexicans  under  General  La  Vega.   Grande. 
Crossing  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Americans  attacked  Mon 
terey,    a   strongly   fortified    city    (September   21).     After 
three  days  the  Mexicans  were  forced  to  capitulate. 

A  large  part  of  Taylor's  army  was  then  transferred  to 
the  command  of  General  Winfield  Scott,  who  had  been 
made  chief  in  command,  with  orders  to  capture  Vera  Cruz 
and  then  advance  to  the  City  of  Mexico.  With  his  small 
force,  Taylor  repulsed  five  times  as  many  Mexicans  under 
Santa  Anna  at  Buena  Vista  (February  22,  23,  1847). 

In  the  meantime,  General  Stephen  Kearny  led  his  army  The  war  in 
of  about  2,000  from  Missouri,  a  distance  of  900  miles,   JJ^ico 
and  captured  Santa  Fe  without  firing  a  gun  (August  18,  and  Caii- 
1846).     He  established  a  civil  government  and  declared 
New  Mexico  annexed  to  the  United  States.     He  then  set 
out  to  take  possession  of  California.     Before  his  arrival, 
some  300  American  settlers  in  California,  although  not 
aware  of  the  outbreak  of  war,  had  revolted  and  set  up 
their  standard  of  independence,  the  "bear  flag"  (June  14, 
1846).     They  were  assisted  by  John  C.  Fremont,  who  was 
on  an  exploring  expedition.     Aided  by  a  fleet  under  Com 
modore  Sloat  and  later  under  Commodore  Stockton,  the 
conquest  of  California  was  completed. 

Early  in  the  year  1847,  General  Scott  captured  Vera  City  of 
Cruz,  and  then  marched  toward  the  capital  city.     Cerro  capTured. 
Gordo,  Contreras,  and  other  desperate  battles  added   to 

*  Rhodes,  History  of  the  United  States  from  the  Compromise  of  1850, 
I,  87. 

t  Their  views  were  expressed  by  Lowell  in  the  Biglow  Papers  as  fol 
lows: 

"They  just  want  this  Calif  orny 
So's  to  lug  new  slave  States  in; 
To  abuse  ye,  an'  to  scorn  ye, 
An'  to  plunder  ye  like  sin." 


332 


American  History 


The 

Wilmot 

Proviso. 


Treaty  of 

Guada- 

lupe- 

Hidalgo, 

1848. 


the  list  of  American  victories  over  a  valiant  foe  under  the 
leadership  of  inferior  officers.  American  soldiers  showed 
splendid  ability  as  fighters.  General  Scott  was  pro 
nounced  "the  most  consummate  commander  of  the  age." 
Among  his  subordinate  officers  were  Ulysses  S.  Grant, 
Robert  E.  Lee,  and  other  young  men  who  then  won  their 
first  laurels. 

Scarcely  had  the  war  begun  when  the  President  applied 
to  Congress  for  $2,000,000  in  order  to  negotiate  a  peace 
with  Mexico  (August  4,  1846).  Santa  Anna  was  to  be  the 
agent  for  bringing  this  about.*  The  slavery  question 
came  at  once  into  the  discussion;  for  Northern  anti- 
slavery  men  were  opposed  to  adding  any  more  slave 
territory.  David  Wilmot  offered  an  amendment  to  the 
appropriation  bill,  the  so-called  " Wilmot  Proviso,"  which 
provided  that  "neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude 
shall  ever  exist  in  any  territory  acquired  from  Mexico." 
The  bill  was  lost  in  the  Senate.  During  the  next  session 
an  appropriation  of  $3,000,000  was  made  for  the  same 
purpose.  Supporters  of  the  principle  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso 
strove,  without  success,  to  have  it  included  in  the  act. 
Questions  involving  slavery  were  thereafter  to  be  the 
leading  issues  in  politics,  and  the  spirit  of  sectionalism 
grew  apace. 

N.  P.  Trist,  sent  by  Polk,  accompanied  Scott's  army  to 
make  terms  as  soon  as  the  submission  of  Mexico  was 
accomplished.  Attempts  to  negotiate  prior  to  the  capt 
ure  of  Mexico  City  failed.  Although  Trist  had  been 
notified  of  his  recall,  he  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
Mexican  Commissioners  which  resulted  in  the  treaty  of 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo.  Mexico  relinquished  all  claim  to 
territory  north  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  border  of  New 
Mexico.  The  boundary  line  was  then  to  extend  to  the 

*  "They  wanted  a  small  war,  just  large  enough  to  require  a  treaty  of 
peace,  and  not  large  enough  to  make  military  reputations,  dangerous  for 
the  Presidency."  Benton.  Thirty  Years  in  the  United  States  Senate,  II, 
680. 


Territorial  Expansion 


333 


Gila  River,  thence  to  the  Colorado,  and  west  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  For  this  area  the  United  States  was  to  pay 
Mexico  $15,000,000  and  assume  the  claims  of  American 
citizens  against  Mexico  amounting  to  about  $3,000,000.* 
The  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  Senate,  March  10,  1848. 

The  extension  of  slavery  into  these  areas  was  made  an 
issue  in  Congress  when  the  question  of  organizing  terri 
torial  governments  for  Oregon,  New  Mexico,  and  Califor 
nia  was  under  consideration.  While  under  Mexican  con 
trol,  the  territory  acquired  from  that  nation  had  been 
free.f  Numerous  solutions  were  offered:  (1)  It  was  pro 
posed  to  extend  the  line  36°  30',  north  of  which  slavery 
was  to  be  excluded,  to  the  Pacific.  (2)  The  Wilmot 
Proviso  was  advocated.  (3)  Calhoun  declared  that  Con 
gress  had  no  right  to  pass  a  law  which  should  "deprive 
the  citizens  of  any  of  the  States  of  this  Union  from  emigrat 
ing  with  their  property  into  any  of  the  territories  of  the 
United  States."  (4)  Senator  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan, 
advocated  the  doctrine  of  "  popular  sovereignty,"  then 
recently  announced,  which  proposed  that  slavery  or  no 
slavery  should  be  determined  by  the  people  of  the  terri 
tories.  The  question  of  slavery  in  the  Mexican  cession 
became  the  principal  issue  in  the  campaign  of  1848.  A 
bill  finally  passed  both  Houses  establishing  a  territorial 
government  for  Oregon  under  which  slavery  was  pro 
hibited. 

Henry  Clay  was  again  the  natural  leader  of  his  party, 
but  he  was  opposed  by  the  antislavery  Whigs  of  the 
North.  General  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Louisiana,  was  a 
slaveholder,  but  had  made  no  declaration  of  his  principles 
and  was  deemed  "  safe."  He  was  nominated  for  President 
and  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York,  for  Vice-President. 
The  hope  for  Whig  success  rested  chiefly  on  the  military 
reputation  of  their  candidate. 

*  The  area  of  Texas  was  376,000  square  miles.     The  area  of  the  Mex 
ican  cession  amounted  to  546,000  square  miles, 
t  Mexico  abolished  slavery  in  1829. 


Was 

slavery  to 
exist  in  the 
territories? 


Presiden 
tial  nom 
inations, 
1848.    The 
Whigs. 


334 


American  History 


The  Dem 
ocrats. 


The  Free- 
soil  party. 


The  Democratic  National  Convention  was  called  on  to 
decide  between  two  factions  in  New  York,  the  "Hunkers" 
and  " Barnburners"  each  having  sent  delegations.*  Both 
finally  withdrew  from  the  convention.  The  Democrats 
placed  in  nomination  General  Lewis  Cass,  a  conservative, 
popular  leader  who  advocated  the  doctrine  of  popular 
sovereignty.  The  convention  refused  to  state  definite 
views  on  slavery;  for  the  Democrats  feared,  as  did  the 
Whigs,  that  their  forces  might  be  divided  over  such  an 
issue. 

The  Barnburners  were  willing  to  help  defeat  Cass,  a 
personal  enemy  of  Van  Buren,  by  seceding  from  the 
Democratic  party;  and  in  a  convention  in  which  delegates 
from  four  other  States  besides  New  York  were  present, 
they  placed  Van  Buren  in  nomination  for  the  Presidency. 
Many  antislavery  Whigs  and  Democrats  were  dis 
pleased  with  the  non-commital  attitude  of  their  parties  on 
slavery  extension,  and  so  these  united  with  the  Barn 
burners  to  form  the  Free-soil  party.  Delegates  from 
eighteen  States  assembled  at  Buffalo,  and  also  nominated 
Van  Buren  for  President. 

The  Liberty  party  abandoned  abolition  for  the  more 
practical  policy  exclusion  of  slavery,  and  also  united  with 
the  Free-Soilers.  "Free  Soil,  Free  Speech,  Free  Labor, 
and  Free  Men"  were  the  watchwords  of  the  party.  The 
large  vote  received  by  Van  Buren  in  New  York  was  suf 
ficient  to  turn  the  thirty-six  electoral  votes  of  that  State 
to  the  Whig  candidates.  Of  the  electoral  votes,  163  were 
for  Taylor  and  Fillmore  and  127  for  Cass  and  Butler,  f 

*  The  name  "Hunker"  was  applied  to  the  non-committal  wing  of  the 
party  because  the  members  were  said  to  "hunker"  for  office. 

"Barnburners"  was  a  name  given  to  the  more  radical  section  because 
they  were  so  determined  to  carry  out  their  views  that  they  resembled  the 
man,  as  one  of  their  leaders  said,  "who  burned  his  barn  in  order  to 
destroy  the  rats  which  infested  it."  They  now  opposed  slavery  in  the 
territories.  Stanwood,  A  History  of  the  Presidency,  229. 

t  The  Free-Soilers  cast  120,510  votes  in  New  York.  Their  total  vote 
was  291,263. 


Territorial  Expansion  335 

When  Taylor  became  President  he  found  a  number  of  President 
problems  demanding  prompt  attention.  Discord  and 
sectional  feeling  were  increasing.  Northerners  were 
growing  steadily  less  tolerant  of  Southern  views  on  slav 
ery.  They  were  aroused  over  the  continuance  of  slavery 
and  the  slave-trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  The 
Fugitive  Slave  Act  (1793)  had  not  been  effective  and 
the  South  was  demanding  a  new  law.  Texas  claimed 
that  part  of  New  Mexico  which  lay  east  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  But  the  most  immediate  need  was  a  definite 
policy  relative  to  the  government  of  territory  acquired 
from  Mexico. 

Gold  was  discovered  in  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento  Organiza- 
River  (January  24,  1848).     Soon,  all  other  occupations  ^°"e°n_ 
in   California   were   nearly   deserted,    and   thousands   of  ment  in 
people  from  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world  flocked  to  the  California 
gold  fields.     The  "Forty-niners"   (1849)  numbered  over 
80,000.     Some   crossed   the   plains   by  wagon   to   South 
Pass,    and    then    proceeded    along    the    California    trail 
(see  p.  296).     Their  sufferings  were  extreme,  many  dying 
of  starvation.     Others  rounded  Cape  Horn  in  all  sorts  of 
vessels,  while  still  others  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
and  then  took  ship  for  San  Francisco. 

Their  only  laws  were  those  framed  by  the  miners  them 
selves.  Delegates  in  a  convention  (September,  1849) 
drew  up  a  constitution  in  which  slavery  was  prohibited, 
and  application  was  made  for  admission  into  the  Union 
as  the  State  of  California. 

The  rush  of  population  to  California  revived  the  considera-    Clayton- 
tion  of  the  question  of  an  Isthmian  canal.     Complications  arose    Bulwer 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  over  the  control 
of  the  Nicaragua  route.     Finally,  a  treaty  was  concluded  be 
tween  Secretary  of  State,  Clayton,   and  the  British  Minister, 
Bulwer,  known  as  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  (April  19,  1850). 
It  was  agreed  that  neither  nation  should  obtain  exclusive  con 
trol  over  the  Nicaraugua  route  and  that  they  should  not  "oc 
cupy,  colonize,  or  exercise  dominion  over"  Nicaraugua,  Costa 
Rica  or  any  part  of  Central  America.     A  general  principle  was 


336 


American  History 


The  ad 
mission  of 
California 
before 
Congress. 


Equal 
numbers 
of  free  and 
slave 
States. 


Clay's 
resolu 
tions,  1850. 


also  asserted  whereby  these  nations  agreed  also  to  "  extend  their 
protection,  by  treaty  stipulations  to  other  practicable  communi 
cations"  across  the  isthmus. 

In  the  meantime,  scenes  of  intense  excitement  had 
occurred  in  the  organization  of  the  Thirty-First  Congress. 
Threats  of  disunion  were  frequently  uttered  by  Southern 
Representatives.  "I  do  not  then  hesitate,"  said  Robert 
Toombs,  of  Georgia,  "to  avow  before  this  House  and  the 
country  and  in  the  presence  of  the  living  God,  that  if  by 
your  legislation  you  seek  to  drive  us  from  the  territories  of 
California  and  New  Mexico  .  .  .  and  to  abolish  slavery 
in  the  District  of  Columbia  ...  I  am  for  disunion." 
Northern  Representatives  asserted  that  dissolution  of  the 
Union  would  be  steadfastly  resisted. 

Florida  (1845)  and  Texas  in  the  same  year;  Iowa 
(1846)  and  Wisconsin  (1848)  had  come  into  the  Union, 
thus  making  fifteen  free  and  fifteen  slave  States.  Should 
California  be  admitted  as  a  free  State  the  balance  in  the 
Senate  would  be  in  favor  of  the  North.  This  the  South 
was  determined  to  resist;  for  there  was  no  other  slave 
territory  which  might  then  be  admitted. 

The  Senate  became  the  center  of  the  contest.  Clay,  after 
eight  years  of  retirement,  was  again  a  member  of  that  body, 
and  he  undertook,  through  compromise,  to  stop  the  agitation 
that  endangered  the  Union.  He  was  well  suited  to  play 
the  role  of  "Great  Pacificator,"  for,  while  he  was  himself 
a  slaveholder,  he  advocated  gradual  emancipation.  His 
sympathies  were  National,  and  he  was  at  that  time  closely 
bound  by  no  party  ties.  He  still  showed  great  mental 
powers,  although  seventy-three  years  of  age  and  physically 
weak.  In  a  conciliatory  speech  he  proposed  the  following 
resolutions:  (1)  To  admit  California  with  her  free  constitu 
tion  ;  (2)  to  organize  New  Mexico  and  Utah  as  territories 
without  provision  as  to  slavery;  (3)  to  pay  Texas  to  give 
up  her  claims  on  New  Mexico;  (4)  to  enact  a  more  effec 
tive  fugitive  slave  law;  and  (5)  to  abolish  the  slave-trade, 
but  still  permit  slavery,  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 


Territorial  Expansion  337 

These  resolutions,  combined  in  a  single  measure,  the  Discussion 
so-called  "Omnibus  Bill,"  became  the  absorbing  topics  rSom- 
for  debate  in  Congress  and  for  discussion  in  the  press  and  tions. 
by  the  people  of  the  entire  country  during  a  period  of 
seven  months. 

The  last  speech  of  Calhoun  constituted  a  dramatic 
incident  in  the  debate  (March  4).  For  some  time  his 
health  had  been  failing.  Assisted  in  reaching  his  seat  in 
the  Senate,  he  was  too  feeble  to  deliver  the  speech  he  had 
prepared,  and  it  was  read  by  a  friend.  He  called  atten 
tion  to  the  general  discontent  in  the  South  due  to  Northern 
agitation  on  the  slavery  question,  and  declared  that  dis 
union  was  certain  to  follow  unless  the  North  should  con 
cede  to  the  South  "an  equal  right  in  the  acquired  terri 
tory;  "  should  "do  her  duty  by  causing  the  stipulations 
relative  to  fugitive  slaves  to  be  fulfilled;  and  cease  the 
agitation  of  the  slave  question." 

Webster,  in  his  "Seventh-of -March  speech,"  regarded 
by  himself  as  the  most  important  of  his  life,  alienated 
large  numbers  of  his  former  supporters.  He  maintained 
that  it  was  not  necessary  to  exclude  slavery  from  this 
territory  through  legislation,  since  by  the  "law  of  nature," 
it  was  already  excluded.  He  opposed  the  application  of 
the  Wilmot  Proviso  because  it  offended  the  South,  and 
criticised  the  North  for  not  returning  escaped  slaves. 
That  his  motive  was  to  win  favor  with  the  South  has  not 
been  established.  Webster,  while  an  opponent  of  slavery, 
believed  that  the  cause  of  union  would  be  best  promoted 
by  supporting  Clay's  compromise  scheme.* 

William  H.  Seward,  of  New  York,  and  Salmon  P.  Chase, 
of  Ohio,  were  two  notable  leaders  of  the  "Conscience 
Whigs."  Both  opposed  any  compromise  on  a  question  of 
right.  Seward  declared  that  the  Constitution  devoted  the 
domain  "to  union,  to  justice  ...  to  liberty.  But  there 

*  Webster  never  regained  his  political  prestige.  The  speech  was  com 
mended  by  Southerners,  but  they  declined  to  support  him  for  the  Presi 
dency  two  years  later. 


338 


American  History 


is  a  'higher  law'  than  the  Constitution  which  regulates 
our  authority  over  the  domain  and  devotes  it  to  the  same 
noble  purpose."  * 


Western  Part  of  the  United  States,  in  1850 


The  Com-  The  "  Omnibus  Bill"  was  defeated,  but  separate  meas- 
of°i85(f  ures  were  passed  which  really  embodied  Clay's  plan.  (1) 
The  Texas  boundary  was  settled  and  that  State  received 
$10,000,000  to  surrender  its  claim  on  New  Mexico.  (2) 
California  was  admitted  as  a  free  State.  (3)  New  Mexico 
and  Utah  were  organized  as  territories,  the  question  of 
slavery  or  no  slavery  to  be  determined  by  their  constitu- 

*  Seward  was  called  "traitor  to  the  Constitution"  for  his  higher  law 
doctrine,  which  was  wrongly  interpreted  as  meaning  the  nullification  of 
the  Constitution. 


Territorial  Expansion 


339 


tions  when  they  should  apply  for  admission  as  States. 
(4)  A  fugitive  slave  law  was  passed.  (5)  Slave-trade  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  was  abolished. 

In  the  midst  of  the  debate  occurred  the  death  of  Presi 
dent  Taylor.  He  had  been  under  the  influence  of  Seward 
and  had  opposed  the  Compromise.  Vice-President  Fill- 
more  succeeded  him,  and  signed  the  last  of  the  bills 
(September  20,  1850). 

After  the  months  of  strife  the  passage  of  the  Compromise  Effects  of 
of  1850  brought  a  feeling  of  relief.     Webster,  Stephen  A.   p^™,' 
Douglas,  and  other  leaders  urged  its  acceptance.     Men  The  Fugi- 
from  all  parties,  in  public  meetings,  endorsed  it  and  de-  ^^ 
nounced  further  agitation.     But  this  spirit  of  acquiescence 
wras  marred  by  the  hostility  manifest  in  the  North  toward 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.     Radical  antislavery  people  de 
nounced  it  as  "  unconstitutional,  immoral,  and  unchristian." 
Among  other  harsh  features  of  this  act  were  the  following: 
The  testimony  of  a  fugitive  was  denied  and  he  was  forbid 
den  to  have  trial  by  jury;  any  citizen  might  be  called  upon 
to  assist  in  arresting  runaway  slaves.     The  execution  of  the 
law  was  forcibly  resisted  in  a  number  of  States.     A  case 
that  produced  intense  excitement  throughout  the  country 
grew  out  of  the  rescue  of  a  fugitive,  named  Shadrach,  in 
Boston  (1851).     During  the  trial  before  the  United  States 
Commissioner,  a  crowd  of  negroes  rushed  through  the  court 
room  bearing  the  prisoner  with  them.*     He  made  good 
his  escape  to  Canada. 

Opposition  to  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  became  manifest 
in  the  increased  number  of  "  personal  liberty  laws"  passed 
by  Northern  State  legislatures.  Their  main  purpose, 
prior  to  1850,  was  to  prevent  the  removal  of  free  negroes 
to  the  South  on  the  plea  that  they  were  fugitives.  A  num- 

*  Resistance  in  Boston  and  other  cities  was  fostered  by  groups  of 
influential  white  men  organized  as  "Vigilance  Committees."  One  of  the 
leaders  in  the  Boston  committee,  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  'in 
"Cheerful  Yesterdays,"  132-166,  relates  numerous  incidents  connected 
with  their  work. 


Personal 


340 


American  History 


"Under 
ground 
railroad.' 


Uncle 
Tom's 
Cabin. 


Presiden- 


ber  of  legislatures  now  extended  their  application.  They 
forbade  keeping  runaways  in  State  prisons;  imposed 
heavy  penalties  on  State  officers  who  should  aid  in  their 
arrest;  provided  counsel  for  the  defence  of  fugitives;  and 
were  really  attempts  to  nullify  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law. 

Fugitives  were  aided  in  making  their  escape  to  Canada 
by  the  "  underground  railroad."  The  name  was  applied 
to  the  system  by  which  run 
aways  were  concealed  from 
their  pursuers,  and,  in  due 
time,  were  sent  on  to  the  next 
station.  Buffalo,  Cleveland, 
and  Detroit  were  the  leading 
terminals.  There  were  over 
1,500  conductors  in  Ohio  alone. 
According  to  the  census  of 
1850,  1,011  fugitives  escaped 
in  that  year,  but  the  number 
was  probably  greater. 

In  the  spring  of  1852  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin  was  published, 
and,  within  a  year,  300,000 
copies  were  sold  in  this  country 

alone.  This  novel,  by  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  was 
a  powerful  protest  against  the  whole  system  of  slavery, 
and  it  influenced  public  opinion  at  the  North  profoundly. 
Rufus  Choate  is  reported  to  have  said:  "That  book  will 
make  two  millions  of  Abolitionists." 

What  attitude  would  the  political  parties  assume  toward 
tnese  questions  in  the  campaign  of  1852?  The  Demo 
cratic  Convention,  after  a  prolonged  contest,  nominated 
Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hampshire,  for  President,  thus 
passing  by  such  leaders  as  Cass,  Douglas,  and  Buchanan. 
The  selection  was  a  surprise,  for  the  nominee  was  little 
known.  He  had  been  two  terms  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  and  one  in  the  Senate,  and  had  served  as  Briga 
dier-  General  during  the  Mexican  War.  In  the  Whig 


Harriet  Beecher  Stowe 

Drawn  from  a  photograph  by  Sarony 


Territorial  Expansion  341 

Convention,  General  Winfield  Scott,  on  the  fifty-third  bal 
lot  was  victor  over  Fillmore  and  Webster.  Both  parties 
asserted  their  satisfaction  with  the  Compromise  of  1850  and 
deprecated  "further  agitation  of  the  question  thus  settled." 

The  "Free  Democratic  party"  (Free-Soil  party)  was 
outspoken  in  its  demands  for  "no  more  slave  States,  no 
slave  territory,  no  nationalized  slavery,  and  no  national 
legislation  for  the  extradition  of  slaves."  They  nominated 
John  P.  Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  for  President. 

Of  the  296  electoral  votes,  Pierce  and  William  R.  King 
of  Alabama  received  254;  Scott  and  Graham  receiving 
only  42.*  The  Whig  party  never  recovered  from  this 
defeat.  The  outcome  shows  the  desire  on  the  part  of  men 
at  the  North  to  maintain  party  integrity  and  to  preserve  the 
Union,  and  a  comparative  indifference  of  the  great  majority 
to  questions  of  slavery. 

Travellers  of  the  time  wrote  of  the  charm  of  Southern  Southern 
society  to  be  found  within  the  circle  of  the  great  planters,  ^^ 
but  called  attention  to  the  incubus  of  slavery  upon  the  slavery, 
industrial  development  of  the  South.     In  1850,  the  slaves 
numbered   3,200,000,    the   property   of  347,000   persons. 
About  175,000  of  these  slaveholders  owned  fewer  than 
five  slaves  each,  and  the  great  mass  of  the  slaves  belonged 
to  some  7,500  men,  each  holding  more  than  50  slaves. | 
The  "poor  whites"   of  the  South,  about  2,500,000,   in 
number,  were  forced  to  eke  out  an  existence  by  culti 
vating  the  worn-out  and  waste  lands. 

Cotton  had  become,  by  1850,  the  leading  export  of  the 
country.  It  was  maintained  at  the  South  that  without 
slavery  the  demand  for  this  product  could  not  be  met,  and 
that  their  prosperity  would  be  sacrificed.  But  each  year  the 

*  Of  the  popular  votes,  the  Democrats  had  1,601,474;  the  Whigs 
1,386,580,  and  the  Free  Democrats  156,667. 

t  There  were  nine  men  who  owned  between  500  and  1,000  slaves  each, 
and  two  1,000  and  over.  It  was  upon  the  large  plantations  that  the 
worst  abuses  of  the  system  were  to  be  found,  where  the  slaves  were 
frequently  under  the  direction  of  hired  overseers  whose  salaries  depended 
on  the  size  of  the  crops  produced. 


342 


American  History 


South  was  becoming  less  able  to  keep  pace  with  the 
progress  of  the  age.  With  slave  labor  there  could  be  little 
of  that  diversification  of  industry  so  characteristic  of  the 
North,  and  even  agriculture  was  carried  on  at  a  disad 
vantage.  A  careful  observer  declared  that  a  day  laborer 
at  the  North  was  able  to  perform  as  much  work  as  two 
slaves,  and  that  his  food,  clothing,  and  lodging  were 
vastly  better.*  The  South  was  dependent  on  the  North 
west  for  large  amounts  of  its  food  supplies ;  and  the  great 
natural  resources  of  the  South,  the  iron  and  coal-fields, 
forests,  and  water-power  had  been  little  exploited. |  About 
one-fifth  as  much  money  was  invested  in  manufactures  in 
the  South  as  at  the  North.  The  value  of  Northern  ex 
ports  exceeded  that  of  Southern  exports  by  $60,000,000 
(1855),  and  the  imports  of  the  North  were  ten  times  as 
great  as  were  those  of  the  South.  Of  the  24,500  miles  of 
railroad  in  the  United  States  in  1857,  the  South  had  only 
6,800  miles. 

Slavery  degraded  labor,  and  the  thousands  of  immigrants-com 
ing  from  European  countries  unable  to  compete  with  it,  found 
homes  in  the  North.  Prior  to  1842,  the  largest  number  of  im 
migrants  entering  the  United  States  in  a  single  year  had  not  ex 
ceeded  100,000.  After  1848,  the  numbers  coming  each  year  were 
greatly  increased,  due  chiefly  to  the  terrible  famine  in  Ireland 
(1846  and  1847)  and  to  the  political  upheavals  in  Germany  and 
some  of  the  other  European  countries.  Besides,  it  was  easier 
"to  get  on  in  the  world  "  in  America,  and  the  influx  of  European 
immigrants  continued  until  1861.  The  largest  number  that  came 
in  a  single  year  was  428,000  (1854),  and  the  total  number  enter 
ing  during  the  nine  years  after  1851  was  2,579,000;  1,713,251 
had  come  between  1841  and  1850. 

Education        There  was  a  general  lack  of  intellectual  progress  at  the 
South6         South;   for  while  there  were  many  private  schools,  acad 
emies,  and  girls'  seminaries  of  good  rank  for  the  families 

*  Olmsted,  Cotton  Kingdom,  I,  134;    II,  239. 

t  In  1907,  about  one-seventh  of  the  mineral  production  of  the  country 
came  from  the  Southern  States,  and  the  forests  yielded  an  income  of 
$300,000,000,  an  income  exceeded  by  that  from  cotton  alone.  See 
The  World's  Work,  Vol.  14,  8941-8943. 


Immigra 
tion. 


Territorial  Expansion  343 

of  the  large  planters,  the  public  school  system  was  little 
developed.  According  to  the  census  of  1850,  there  were 
62,400  schools  of  this  grade  with  2,800,000  pupils  at  the 
North,  and  in  the  South  18,500  schools,  attended  by 
582,000  pupils. 

The  attitude  of  the  South  toward  the  problems  incident  Demands 
to  the  system  of  slavery  has  been  well  defined  by  a  recent  { 
Southern  writer.  ''Economically,  it  demanded,"  he  said, 
"that  the  fewest  possible  restrictions  be  placed  upon  the 
exchange  of  its  two  or  three  staple  products  for  the  prod 
ucts  of  other  countries,  and  that  it  be  permitted  to  extend 
itself  constantly  to  fresh  lands.  Politically,  it  demanded 
protection  from  criticism  and  from  social  and  humani 
tarian  reforms  and  changes."  *  With  the  low  tariff  of 
those  times,  commercial  restriction  had  ceased  to  be  a 
grievance  (as  it  had  been  twenty  years  earlier).  But  the 
demand  for  fresh  lands  through  the  extension  of  slave 
territory  was  being  met  by  growing  opposition  at  the  North. 
The  spirit  of  humanitarian  reform  was  growing  fast  in 
the  North  and  the  slaveholders  were  being  held  up  to  the 
world  as  supporters  of  a  "barbarous"  institution.  It  was 
merely  a  question  of  time  when  these  two  points  of  con 
test  between  the  North  and  South  would  largely  remove 
the  indifference  to  slavery  questions  in  the  North;  would 
break  down  Northern  allegiance  to  the  Democratic  and 
Whig  parties,  and  so  sectionalize  the  country. 

SUGGESTIVE  REFERENCES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Other  problems  in  the  controversy  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States.     Webster,  Am.  St.  Series,  241-253. 

2.  Which  nation  had  the  better  claim  to  Oregon  in  1846? 
Why  was  the  settlement  so  peaceable?     Schouler,  History,  IV, 
504-514.     Burgess,  The  Middle  Period,  31 1-318.     Wilson,  Divi 
sion  and  Reunion,  147,   148.     Garrison,   Westward  Extension, 
157-173. 

*  Brown,  The  Lower  South  in  American  History,  57,  58. 


344  American  History 

3.  The  annexation  of  Texas  and  influence  on  politics.     Clay, 
Am.  St.  Series,  II,  236-268.     Schouler,  History,   IV,  440-461; 
465-486.     Garrison,  Westward  Extension,  114-155. 

4.  Do  you  believe  adequate  cause  existed  for  war  against 
Mexico?     If  Mexico  had  been  Great  Britain  would  war  have 
been  declared?     Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  149.     Burgess, 
327-331.     Rhodes,   History  of   the   United   States,    I,    87-93. 
Garrison,  Westward  Extension,  188-208. 

5.  Were  the  Democratic  and  Whig  parties  justified  in  their 
non-commital  attitude  toward  slavery  in  1848?     For  what  party 
would  you  have  used  your  influence?     Why?     Cass,  Am.  St. 
Series,  241-261.     Garrison,  Westward  Extension,  294-314. 

6.  Discovery  of  gold  and  formation  of  government  in  California. 
Rhodes,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  111-116.     Schouler,  V, 
130-146. 

7.  Henry  Clay  and  the  Compromise  of  1850.     Clay,  Am.  St. 
Series,  II,  323-325;   329-337.     Garrison,  Westward  Extension, 
320-332. 

8.  Characteristics  of  Webster  as  a  man  and  as  an  orator. 
Rhodes,   I,   137-161.      McMaster,   Life  of  Webster,   313-324. 
Scribner's  Magazine,  15,  118-127;  25,  450-464;  26,  74-84;  213- 
220. 

9.  Webster  and  Calhoun  in  debate,  1850.     Scribner's  Maga 
zine,  37,  578-586. 

10.  Why  did  Webster's  Seventh-of-March  speech   arouse   so 
much  antagonism  against  him  in  the  North?     Johnston,  Amer 
ican  Orations,  II,   161-201.      Garrison,  Westward  Extension, 
324-327. 

11.  Seward  and  "The  Higher  Law  Doctrine."    Seward,  Am. 
St.  Series,  Chap.  V. 

12.  Contrast  between  Webster  and  Clay  as  statesmen.   Blaine, 
Twenty  Years  in  Congress,  I,  106-108. 

13.  Constitutional  bases  for  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  and  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia.     Effects 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act.     Constitution,  Art.  IV,  sec.  2,  cl.  3; 
Art.  I,  sec.  8,  cl.  17.     Rhodes,  History,  I,  208-213;   222-226; 
499-506.    Higginson,  Cheerful  Yesterdays,  132-166.    Burgess, 
Middle  Period,  365-375.    Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  174- 
178. 

14.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.     The  author;  Century  Magazine,  52, 


Territorial  Expansion  345 

699-704.  The  story;  Atlantic  Monthly,  78,  311-321.  Old  South 
Leaflets,  No.  82.  Conditions  which  gave  rise  to  it  and  influence 
of  the  work.  Rhodes,  History,  I,  278-285. 

15.  Slavery  and  its  effects.     Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion, 
117-132.     Rhodes,  History,  I,  Chap.  IV. 

16.  James  and  Mann,  Readings,  Chapter  21. 

17.  Bret  Harte,  Tales  of  the  Argonauts  and  Luck  of  Roaring 
Camp   (California).     Eva  Emery   Dye,  McLoughlin  and  Old 
Oregon  (life  at  Fort  Vancouver).    Whittier,  Anti-slavery  Poems. 
Lowell,  Biglow  Papers  (first  series). 


CHAPTER  XXII 


The  Ne 
braska 
Bill,   1854. 


Kansas- 
Nebraska 
Act. 


SLAVERY  EXTENSION  AND  SECTIONAL  FEELING 

PRESIDENT  PIERCE,  in  his  inaugural  address,  pledged 
himself  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  Compromise  of 
1850.  It  seemed  that  the  Democratic  party,  with  a 
majority  in  both  Houses  of  Congress,  would  be  able  to 
carry  out  its  policy,  and  that  the  general  tranquillity 
would  be  undisturbed. 

But  a  violent  agitation  was  begun  when  Senator  Douglas, 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  territories,  reported  a 
bill  for  the  organization  of  the  territory  of  Nebraska  out 
of  that  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  west  of  the  States 
of  Missouri  and  Iowa  (January  4,  1854).  According  to 
the  Compromise  of  1820,  slavery  was  excluded  from  this 
territory  north  of  36°  30'.  It  was  now  proposed  that  a 
State  or  States  formed  from  the  Nebraska  territory  should 
be  admitted  into  the  Union  "with  or  without  slavery,  as 
their  Constitution  may  prescribe  at  the  time."  With  an 
ambition  to  be  President  and  the  desire,  thereiore,  to 
secure  the  support  of  the  South,  Douglas  had  proposed  this 
measure.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  as  a  radical 
Democrat  from  the  West,  he,  with  others  of  that  region, 
believed  in  the  entire  doctrine  of  local  self-government. 

On  January  23,  he  introduced  a  substitute  bill  by 
which  two  territories,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  were  to  be 
organized.  The  Missouri  Compromise  was  declared  "in 
operative  and  void,"  as  it  had  been  "superseded  by  the 
principles  of  the  legislation  of  1850."  A  provision  was 
added,  the  "popular  sovereignty"  clause,  affirming  it  to 
346 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling        347 

be  the  "true  intent  and  meaning  of  this  act  not  to  legislate 
slavery  into  any  territory  or  State,  nor  to  exclude  it  there 
from;  but  to  leave  the  people  thereof  perfectly  free  to 
form  and  regulate  their  own  domestic  institutions  in  their 
own  way,  subject  only  to  the 
Constitution  of  the  United 
States."  For  nearly  five 
months  the  measure  was  dis 
cussed  in  Congress.* 

In  the  Senate,  Seward  and 
Chase,  able  opponents  of 
slavery  extension,  were 
greatly  aided  in  their  attacks 
on  the  bill  by  Charles  Sum- 
ner,  Benjamin  Wade,  and 
Edward  Everett.  Chase,  in 
a  notable  speech,  urged  the 
rejection  of  the  measure,  Stephen  A.  Douglas 

which   he  asserted    was    "a 

violation  of  the  plighted  faith  and  solemn  compact  which 
our  fathers  made,  and  which  we,  their  sons,  are  bound  by 
every  sacred  tie  of  obligation  sacredly  to  maintain."  Doug 
las  was  the  " Little  Giant"  in  its  support,  and  never  did 
his  skill  as  a  debater  appear  to  better  advantage.  Having 
passed  the  Senate  with  a  vote  of  37  to  14  and  the  House 
by  a  small  majority,  the  bill  became  a  law  (May  30). 

During  the  progress  of  the  discussion  in  Congress,  the 
excitement  among  the  people  increased,  and  the  crisis  wras 
brought  much  nearer.  The  act  was  acceptable  to  the 
South,  for  it  contained  a  favor  which  had  not  been  asked. 

*  On  January  24,  an  appeal  of  the  Independent  Democrats  in  Con 
gress  was  published.  It  pertained  to  the  original  Nebraska  Bill.  "  We 
arraign  this  bill,"  they  said,  "as  a  gross  violation  of  a  sacred  pledge  (the 
Missouri  Compromise);  as  a  criminal  betrayal  of  precious  rights;  as 
part  and  parcel  of  an  atrocious  plot  to  exclude  from  a  vast  unoccupied 
region  immigrants  from  the  Old  World  and  free  laborers  from  our  own 
States,  and  to  convert  it  into  a  dreary  region  of  despotism  inhabited  by 
masters  and  slaves." 


348 


American  History 


Emigra 
tion  to 
Kansas. 


Ten  Northern  legislatures  protested  against  the  passing 
of  the  measure;  that  of  Illinois  alone  favored  it.  Forty- 
two  Democrats  in  the  House  from  the  North  refused  to 
follow  the  dictation  of  Douglas  and  voted  against  his  bill. 
Of  the  forty-four  Northern  Democrats  who  voted  for  it 
only  seven  were  returned  to  the  House.  Thenceforth 
political  parties  were  to  become  more  sectional. 

The  act  did  not  state  definitely  when  the  question  of  slavery 
in  a  territory  was  to  be  decided  by  a  vote  of  the  people.  Pro- 
slavery  settlers  from  Missouri  began  at  once  to  enter  Kansas  and 
take  possession  of  the  best  lands.  Large  numbers  of  Northern 
emigrants  were  sent  to  Kansas,  and  were  assisted  in  making 
homes  by  the  New  England  Emigrant  Aid  Company  and  other 
similar  organizations.  Tickets  on  the  railroads  were  furnished 
by  these  companies  at  reduced  rates,  and  an  agent  was  sent  to 
take  charge  of  these  parties.  Assistance  was  also  given  these 
pioneers  in  constructing  mills  and  carrying  on  other  improve 
ments.  By  the  end  of  the  year  1855,  the  New  England  Company 
had  sent  4,000  persons  to  Kansas.  Pro-slavery  men  were  alarmed 
at  this  movement,  and  made  active  preparation  to  elect  members 
to  the  territorial  legislature  (March  30,  1855).  On  the  day  of 
the  election,  5,000  armed  Missourians,  "border  ruffians  "  as  they 
were  called,  marched  into  Kansas,  drove  off  election  officers  who 
opposed  them,  and  carried  the  election  by  casting  three-fourths 
of  the  votes.  When  the  legislature,  entirely  under  the  control 
of  pro-slavery  men,  met,  it  adopted  a  code  of  laws  for  the  es 
tablishing  of  slavery  in  the  territory.  A  denial  of  the  right  to 
hold  slaves  in  Kansas  was  made  a  crime  punishable  by  not  less 
than  two  years'  imprisonment. 

At  that  time  there  were  probably  not  more  than  200  slaves  in 
the  territory.  The  emigration  of  slaveholders  into  Kansas  was 
slow  because  they  could  not  immediately  dispose  of  their  planta 
tions.  Besides,  there  was  the  chance  of  losing  the  right  to  hold 
slaves  under  the  laws  of  the  territory. 


govern 
ment 
formed. 


Free  state  The  Free  State  party  paid  no  attention  to  the  govern 
ment,  which  they  declared  had  been  established  through 
fraud,  and  called  a  convention  at  Topeka  (October  23, 
1855).  A  State  constitution  was  formed  which  pro 
hibited  slavery.  Members  of  the  legislature  and  State 
officers  were  elected,  and  application  was  made  ro 


350 


American  History 


Civil  war 
in  Kansas. 


Attack  on 

Senator 

Sumner. 


Gadsden 
Purchase. 


Attempts 
to  annex 
Cuba. 


Congress  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union  with  this  Con 
stitution.  Thus  two  governments  claimed  authority  in 
Kansas. 

Both  parties  armed  for  the  struggle.  In  May,  1856,  the 
antislavery  town  of  Lawrence  was  entered  and  sacked  by  pro- 
slavery  forces.  Months  of  robbery,  devastation,  and  deeds  of 
violence  ensued,  in  which  men  of  both  factions  took  part.  Na 
tional  troops  under  requisition  from  the  acting  governor  dis 
persed  the  Free  State  legislature  when  it  assembled  at  Topeka 
(July  4,  1856).  Order  was  finally  restored  by  the  aid  of  United 
States  soldiers.  Two  hundred  lives  were  sacrificed  in  this  demon 
stration  that  "popular  sovereignty"  was  a  failure. 

In  the  meantime,  the  House  of  Representatives  voted 
to  admit  Kansas  with  the  Topeka  constitution,  but  the 
Senate  refused  to  concur.  Senator  Sumner,  in  a  startling 
speech  on  the  "  Crime  against  Kansas,"  arraigned  the 
whole  system  of  slavery.  He  referred  to  Senator  Butler, 
of  South  Carolina,  in  insulting  language.  Two  days  after, 
Representative  Brooks,  of  that  State,  kinsman  of  Butler, 
approached  Sumner,  seated  at  his  desk,  and  beat  him 
about  the  head  with  a  cane.  Sumner  did  not  recover 
fully  from  the  assault  for  over  three  years.  Brooks  re 
signed  his  seat  in  the  House,  but  was  returned  by  an  almost 
unanimous  vote.  Although  scarcely  condemned  at  the 
South,  the  attack  was  regarded  at  the  North  as  brutal  and 
cowardly,  and  the  bitterness  between  the  sections  was 
greatly  enhanced. 

The  Gadsden  Purchase,  negotiated  by  James  Gadsden 
(1853),  consisted  of  47,000  square  miles  of  land  directly 
south  of  the  Gila  River.  It  was  acquired  from  Mexico  by 
the  payment  of  $10,000,000. 

American  expansionists,  exponents  of  the  doctrine  of 
"manifest  destiny,"  looked  toward  Cuba  and  Central 
America.  At  the  South,  the  acquisition  of  Cuba  with  its 
large  slave  population,  was  especially  in  favor.  President 
Polk  found  Spain  unwilling  to  enter  into  any  negotiation 
for  the  sale  of  the  island  (1848). 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling        351 

Lopez,  a  South  American  adventurer,  led  by  the  report  that 
Cuba  was  on  the  eve  of  revolt,  planned  for  an  invasion  of  the 
island  at  the  head  of  a  company  of  adventurers.  In  spite  of 
President  Taylor's  proclamation  against  such  "filibustering" 
expeditions,  Lopez,  with  about  500  followers,  escaped  in  a  ship 
from  New  Orleans,  and  landed  in  Cuba  (August  12,  1851).  The 
expedition  was  a  failure,  many  of  the  men  were  killed  in  battle, 
and  the  remainder  were  captured.  Lopez  was  executed  and 
fifty  others  were  shot.  Excitement  in  New  Orleans  grew  in 
tense  when  the  outcome  became  known.  Rioters  broke  into 
the  office  of  the  Spanish  Consul.  Congress  voted  $25,000  as  an 
indemnity  to  Spain  for  the  property  destroyed.  Prompt  apology 
was  made,  and  the  President  asked  for  leniency  in  the  treatment 
of  the  other  prisoners. 

Cuban  annexation  was  revived  when  Pierce  became 
President.  The  Black  Warrior,  an  American  merchant 
man,  was  seized  at  Havana  for  violation  of  port  regula 
tions  (February,  1854).  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
extremists  who  urged  war,  chiefly  with  the  hope  of  gaining 
Cuba,  the  President  accepted  the  settlement  offered  by 
Spain. 

During  the  controversy,  Buchanan,  Mason,  and  Soule,   The 
American  Ministers  to  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,   Manifesto, 
respectively,  were  instructed  to  confer  on  the  acquisition   1854. 
of  Cuba.     In  their  meeting   at   Ostend,   Belgium,   they 
drew  up  a  paper  since  called  the  Ostend  Manifesto.     In 
this  agreement,  they  declared  that  upon  the  refusal  of 
Spain  to  sell  Cuba  at  a  fair  price,  since  her  continued  con 
trol  would  "seriously  endanger  our  internal  peace"  *  ... 
"  then  by  every  law  human  and  divine,  we  shall  be  justified 
in  wresting  it  from  Spain  if  we  possess  the  power."  Marcy, 
Secretary  of  State,  disavowed  this  scheme,  a  scheme  which 
proposed  a  policy  suited  to  a  band  of  highwaymen. 

After  the  passing  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  the  call   Repub- 
for  the  organization  of  a  new  party  opposed  to  slavery 
extension  became  stronger.    Such  a  movement  was  set  on 
foot  in  the  North-west,  where  party  ties  were  less  binding 

*  Danger  of  slave  insurrection  and  dominance  in  Cuba  would,  it  was 
feared,  set  an  example  that  might  be  followed  by  slaves  in  the  South. 


352 


American  History 


Know- 
Nothing 
party. 


Presiden 
tial  elec 
tion,  1856. 


than  in  the  East,  and  July  6,  1854,  a  State  mass-meeting, 
made  up  of  Whigs,  Free-Soilers,  and  Anti-Nebraska  Dem 
ocrats  met  at  Jackson,  Michigan.*  They  denounced  the 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  and  demanded  the  re 
peal  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  and  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law.  The  name  "Republican"  was  adopted  for  the 
"fusion"  ticket  which  was  nominated.  In  eight  other 
States,  four  of  them  in  the  North-west,  fusion  candidates 
were  also  nominated  on  tickets  called  "Republican"  and 
"Anti-Nebraska."  In  the  elections  of  1854  and  1855, 
the  new  party  was  markedly  successful. 

During  these  years  of  political  revolution,  the  "American 
party"  also  showed  great  strength.  Its  adherents,  fear 
ful  of  the  political  influence  of  the  increasing  number  of 
immigrants,  determined  that  no  foreign-born  citizen,  es 
pecially  a  Roman  Catholic,  should  be  elected  to  office. 
All  features  of  the  organization  were  secret.  Members 
questioned  relative  to  the  purposes  of  the  party  always 
replied:  "I  don't  know,"  and  thus  the  party  came  to  be 
called  the  "Know-Nothings."  This  new  issue  proved 
particularly  attractive  to  men  who  desired  to  escape  the 
slavery  question,  and  more  than  one-half  the  members  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  the  Congress  organized 
in  1855  were  elected  by  this  party. 

In  the  Know-Nothing  National  Convention  (1856) 
Millard  Fillmore  was  nominated  for  President.  The 
Democratic  Convention  nominated  James  Buchanan,  of 
Pennsylvania  for  the  Presidency  and  John  C.  Breckin- 
ridge  of  Kentucky  for  Vice-President.  The  party  plat 
form  promised  allegiance  to  the  principles  of  the  Com 
promise  of  1850  and  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act.  Seward 
having  declined  to  be  considered  a  candidate  for  Presi 
dent,  the  Republican  Convention  nominated  John  C. 
Fremont  of  California.  One  of  their  resolutions  declared 

*  A  meeting  of  men  from  the  various  parties  met  at  Ripon,  Wisconsin 
March  20,  and  recommended  that  a  new  party  should  be  formed.  The 
name  Republican  was  suggested. 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling        353 


that  Congress  had  both  the  "right  and  duty  to  prohibit 
in  the  Territories  those  twin  relics  of  barbarism,  polygamy 
and  slavery."  The  immediate  admission  of  Kansas  as  a 
free  State  was  demanded.  Not  since  1840  had  there  been 
a  campaign  so  full  of  excitement.  Buchanan  and  Breck- 
inridge  received  174  electoral  votes,  and  Fremont  114. 

Fremont  carried 
eleven  of  the  six- 
teen  Northern 
States.  The  pop 
ular  vote  for 
Buchanan  was 
1,838,169;  for 
Fremont,  1,341,- 
264;  and  for  Fill- 
more,  874,534. 

The  decade  Prosper- 
preceding  the  ^847- 
year  1857  was  one 
of  general  pros 
perity.  Among 
the  striking  feat 
ures  of  these  good 
times  were  the 
rapid  settlement 
of  the  West;  im 
proved  means 
of  transportation; 

multiplication  of  inventions ;  development  of  domestic  and 
foreign  commerce;  growth  of  manufactures,  and  the  yield 
of  the  mines  of  gold,  lead,  iron,  and  coal. 

While  the  increase  in  the  population  of  the  country  as  Growth  of 
a  whole  was  marked,  the  rapid  growth  of  the  West,  due  the  West- 
in  part  to  foreign  immigration,  was  particularly  notable. 
Michigan  increased  in  numbers  between  1850  and  1860 
from  395,000  to  742,000;   Iowa  from  192,000  to  674,000, 
and  California  from  92,000  to  361,000.     The  population 


T  E  x  A  «    \  'ML  1-    •;  '•  -T ^DISTRIBUTION  OF 

%V--v.~u -^SjrA-^ ;  &  POPULATION 

\y>    ««  ^fc         IN  1860 

^ ]f  GULF    OF    MEXICO      f-r<\    ^, 

\^      (  U       BAHAMA 

Under  2  inhabitants  to  the  sq.mile  ..J?         <£>         VS» 
2  to  18  inhab.  «    "    »     '«  ^       «^  - 

8<o90 


•&     Center  of  Population 


Distribution  of  Population  in  1860 


354  American  History 

of  other  Western  States  was  doubled,  and  in  some  cases 
quadrupled. 

Railroad  To  meet  the  demand  for  greater  transportation  facilities 
tation.0r  incident  to  the  rapid  development  of  the  country,  the 
number  of  miles  of  railroad  was  increased  from  9,021  in 
1850  to  24,503  in  1857.  Before  1850,  seven  independent 
but  connecting  short  lines  constituted  the  single-track 
railroad  between  New  York  and  Albany,  but  that  year 
one  management  obtained  control,  an  event  which  marks 
the  beginning  of  the  trunk  system.  Three  years  after 
ward  it  was  possible  to  travel  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to 
Chicago  by  railroad.  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  was  the 
Western  terminus  of  the  railroad  in  1859,  but  routes  had 
been  surveyed  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  From  Boston  to 
New  York,  the  average  rate  of  speed  was  twenty-three 
miles  an  hour.  Accidents  were  frequent,  due,  in  the 
main,  to  poor  road  beds,  iron  rails,  and  wooden  bridges. 

Thd  National  Government  stimulated  the  building  of 
railroads  by  making  large  grants  of  public  lands  to  the 
States.  The  first  of  these  grants  was  to  Illinois  as  an 
aid  in  the  construction  of  the  Illinois  Central  from  Chicago 
to  New  Orleans.  Alternate  sections  of  land  on  each  side 
of  the  right  of  way  to  the  amount  of  four  million  acres  were 
transferred  to  the  Company,  and  in  return  the  State  was 
to  receive  a  certain  percentage  of  the  gross  receipts  of  the 
road. 

Water  Between  1851  and  1860,  2,500  vessels  were  constructed 

portation  m  ^e  United  States,  the  largest  having  a  tonnage  of  about 
4,000.  During  the  year  1851,  800  human  lives  were 
sacrificed  because  of  steam -boat  collisions  and  explosions. 
The  following  year  Congress  provided  for  an  inspection  of 
steam-boats,  and  danger  from  this  source  was  materially 
lessened. 

Foreign  The  American  merchant  marine,  made  up  chiefly  of 

fast  sailing-vessels,  was  the  equal  of  that  of  any  other 
nation.  Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  our  exports  and  im 
ports  were  carried  in  American  bottoms.  Numerous 


MAP  OF 

RAILWAYS 
in  1860 

A  few  miles  in  Teias  and  also  in  California. 


356  American  History 

ocean-steamer  lines  were  aided  by  subsidies  from  the 
Government,  but  this  custom  was  generally  discontinued 
after  1858.  The  famine  in  Ireland  increased  the  demand 
for  American  wheat  and  corn.  In  1846  Great  Britain 
reduced  her  import  tax  on  foodstuffs,  and  thereafter 
rapidly  extended  the  free  list.  Cereals  valued  at  $22,- 
500,000  were  sent  from  the  United  States  in  1849,  and  of 
the  4,669,000  bales  of  cotton  produced  in  1860,  two- 
thirds  were  exported,  Great  Britain  furnishing  the  lead 
ing  market. 

Inven-  American  inventive  genius  had  never  before  been  so 

disco£nd     active.     The  number  of  patents  issued  in  any  one  year 
eries.  before  1849  had  not  exceeded  660,  but  during  the  ensuing 

ten  years  there  was  an  average  of  about  2,000  a  year. 
Among  the  most  important  of  these  inventions  were  the 
first  usable  electric  fire-alarm  (1852) ;  the  first  successful 
steam  fire-engine  (1853) ;  and  the  breech-loading  rifle. 
About  this  tune,  Cyrus  McCormick  invented  the  har 
vester. 

The  manufacture  of  waterproof  goods  was  extensive 
after  the  discovery  by  Charles  Goodyear  (1844)  of  a  proc 
ess  of  vulcanizing  rubber.  The  sewing-machine  invented 
by  Elias  Howe  (1846)  was  a  success  from  the  first.  Then 
began  the  transfer  of  the  manufacture  of  clothing  and 
boots  and  shoes  from  small  shops  to  factories,  a  transfer 
which  was  to  constitute  them  great  industries.  That  year, 
Dr.  W.  T.  Morton  and  also  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson 
demonstrated  that  a  person  might,  by  breathing  sulphuric 
ether,  become  insensible  to  pain  and  afterward  recover 
consciousness  with  no  ill  effects.  Printing  was  facilitated 
through  the  invention  of  the  revolving  cylinder  press  by 
Richard  M.  Hoe  (1847). 

Manu-  Manufacturing  developed  rapidly,  notwithstanding  the 

factures.  JQW  j^jgg  on  impOrts.  The  value  of  American  manu 
factures,  in  1860,  was  nearly  two  billions  of  dollars.  This 
expansion  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  two  or  three 
typical  industries.  The  amount  of  iron  products  doubled 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling        357 

in  five  years  (1852-1857),  a  result  due  largely  to  the  im 
proved  means  of  communication  between  the  factories 
and  the  mines  of  iron  and  coal.  Pittsburg  was  becoming 
a  leading  centre  of  the  iron  industry,  and  the  iron  mines 
of  Michigan  were  being  exploited.  The  number  of 
spindles  in  the  cotton-mills  was  1,246,000  in  1831  and  by 
I860  there  were  five  times  as  many.  Woollen  manufact 
ures  increased  over  fifty  per  cent,  between  1850  and  1860. 

From  the  duties  on  imports  (1854-1856)  revenue  was  Tariff  of 
poured  into  the  Treasury  beyond  the  amount  nece*ssary   1 
to  cover  the  ordinary  expenses  of  Government.     Sales  of 
public  lands  also  brought  in  large  sums,  and  the  public 
debt  was  being  decreased.     Congress,  early  in  the  year 
1857,  passed  a  tariff  act  which  reduced  the  average  rate  of 
duties  to  a  little  less  than  20  per  cent.     No  political  party 
opposed  the  measure,  and  real  opposition  came  only  from 
Representatives  of  the  Middle  States  and  the  North-west. 

Scarcely  was  this  act  passed  before  the  country  was  in  Panic  of 
the  midst  of  a  financial  crisis,  the  cause  of  which  cannot  1857> 
be  attributed  to  the  lowering  of  import  duties.  Some 
features  of  the  industrial  expansion  which  we  have  been 
considering  foretold  a  collapse.  The  output  of  gold  from 
the  California  mines  amounted  in  ten  years  to  over  $500,- 
000,000,  and  because  of  the  greater  amount  of  money  put 
into  circulation  prices  rose  and  investment  increased. 
Between  1849  and  1858,  $700,000,000  were  invested  in 
the  construction  of  railroads  alone,  which  were  frequently 
extended  beyond  the  real  needs  of  the  country.  The 
issue  of  bank-notes  grew  from  $58,000,000  in  1843  to 
$214,000,000  in  1857  and  loans  by  banks  also  increased 
enormously.  '  Business  on  a  credit  basis  expanded  ab 
normally  and  speculation  became  general.  In  August, 
1857,  the  Ohio  Life  Insurance  and  Trust  Company 
failed,  and  this  caused  a  panic  in  New  York  City  which 
spread  to  other  cities.  Banks  everywhere  suspended 
specie  payments.  The  Illinois  Central,  the  Michigan 
Central,  and  a  number  of  other  railroads  became  bank- 


358 


American  History 


Normal 

conditions 

restored. 


Americans 
physically 
and 
morally. 


American 
literature. 


nipt.  During  the  years  1857  and  1858  business  failures 
numbered  over  9,000,  with  losses  amounting  to  nearly 
$400,000,000,  the  blow  falling  heaviest  on  bankers  and 
investors. 

Within  two  years,  the  country  had  recovered  from  the 
panic.  Products  of  fields  and  forests,  factories  and  mines 
were  enriching  the  Nation 
when  the  shock  of  civil  war 
came.  At  the  close  of  the 
period,  gold  was  discovered 
near  Pike's  Peak  and  silver 
in  Nevada,  and  in  1859  oil 
was  found  to  exist  in 
north-western  Pennsylvania 
in  quantities  sufficient  to 
make  it  a  marketable  com 
modity. 

At  this  time  there  was  little 
appreciation  among  Ameri 
cans  of  the  need  for  physical 
exercise  and  hygienic  food. 
Rowing  was  practically  the 
only  out-of-doors  sport  then 
in  vogue.  Owing  to  the  agi-  James  Russe11  Lowe11 

...  ,  ,  From  a  photograph,  copyright  by  Elliott  and 

tation  for  temperance,  drunk-  Fry 

enness  was   decreasing,   and 

the  Christian  religion  had  a  marked    influence  over  the 

daily  lives  of  men. 

This  has  been  called  the  "golden  age"  of  American 
literature.  Among  the  great  prose  writers  were  Emerson, 
Holmes,  Hawthorne,  Lowell,  and  William  Gilmore  Simms ; 
and  the  leading  poets  were  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Lowell, 
and  Bryant.  To  the  list  of  American  historians  of  the 
time,  a  list  which  included  William  H.  Prescott  and  George 
Bancroft,  were  added  the  names  of  John  Lothrop  Motley 
and  Francis  Parkman.  Wide  political  influence  was 
wielded  by  Horace  Greeley  through  the  New  York  Tribune, 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling       359 

which  he  founded.  Harper's  Magazine  was  begun  in 
1850,  and  the  "Easy  Chair"  became  notable  through  the 
brilliant  essays  of  George  William  Curtis.  The  illustra 
tions  were  also  a  leading  feature  of  the  magazine.  The 
Atlantic  Monthly  was  founded  in  1857,  with  James  Rus 
sell  Lowell  as  editor. 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Wendell  Public  lect- 
Phillips,  and  John  B.  Gough  were  conspicuous  among  the  Education. 
men  who  instructed  their  countrymen  through  "lyceum" 
lectures  on  literary  subjects  and  reform  movements. 

Public  and  school  libraries  were  multiplied.  District 
schools  were  improved  through  the  influence  of  State  and 
county  superintendents.  The  numbers  of  city  superin 
tendents  of  schools  were  increased  from  17  to  53  (1850- 
1859),  and  gradation  in  the  schools  was  carried  forward 
rapidly.  Sixty -four  public  high  schools  had  been  organized 
in  the  years  before  1850.  By  1859,  there  were  108,  and 
thereafter  the  increase  was  remarkable.  Opportunity  for 
securing  a  secondary  education  was  given  in  6,000  acad 
emies,  the  pupils  in  these  schools  numbering  over  250,000. 

This  was  a  period  also  of  most  rapid  increase  in  the  num 
bers  of  institutions  of  higher  learning.  Between  1800  and 
1850,  82  colleges  and  universities  had  been  founded.  One 
hundred  and  five  institutions  of  this  rank  were  established 
in  the  succeeding  ten  years.  Coeducation  obtained  in  a 
few  of  the  colleges,  but  Iowa  University  was  the  first  State 
university  to  admit  women  on  terms  of  equality  with 
men  (1856). 

Early  in  the  year  1857  agitation  over  slavery  increased  The  Dred 
because  of  a  decision  rendered  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  decision, 
the  United  States.     Several  years  before,  a  negro,  Dred   1857. 
Scott,  had  been  taken  by  his  master  to  Illinois  and  to 
Fort  Snelling  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Louisiana  Pur 
chase.     After  his  return  to  Missouri,  he  sued  for  his  liberty 
on  the  ground  that  residence  in  a  free  territory  had  made 
him  free.     The  case  finally  came  before  the  Supreme 
Court.     The  decision  delivered  for  the  Court  by  Chief- 


360 


American  History 


Kansas 
and  the 
Lecomp- 
ton  con 
stitution. 


Justice  Taney  declared :  (1)  That  Scott  had  not  become  free; 
and  (2)  that  a  slave  or  the  descendant  of  a  slave  could  not 
be  considered  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  with  the  right 
of  suing  in -a  Federal  court.  More  important  was  the 
further  declaration  that  the  right  of  property  in  a  slave 
was  "affirmed  in  the  Constitution";  that  Congress  had 
no  right  to  legislate 
against  this  particular 
kind  of  property;  and 
therefore,  the  Missouri 
Compromise  was  void, 
since  it  forbade  the 
holding  and  owning  of 
slaves  in  National  ter 
ritory.  Five  of  the 
eight  other  judge's  sanc 
tioned  this  opinion  of 
the  Chief- Justice.  Jus 
tice  Curtis  held  that  the 
Court  had  transcended 
its  powers  in  the  case 
by  deciding  upon  the 
constitutionality  of  the 
Missouri  Compromise. 
"The  Supreme  Court 
of  the  country  ranged 
itself  squarely  on  the  side  of  the  South;  but  a  mightier 
force  than  Congress,  or  courts,  or  armies  was  against  it — 
the  force  of  public  opinion."  * 

The  controversy  over  slavery  in  Kansas  was  still  un 
settled.  Emigration  from  North  and  South  continued, 
the  number  of  Free  State  men  increasing  most  rapidly. 
In  the  election  of  members  to  the  territorial  legislature, 
the  Free  State  party,  having  abandoned  the  Topeka  gov 
ernment,  secured  a  majority  in  both  Houses  (October, 
1857).  Five  months  previously,  this  party  had  refused  to 
*  Brown,  The  Lower  South  in  American  History,  104. 


Roger  B.  Taney 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling       361 

vote  for  delegates  to  a  constitutional  convention,  and 
consequently  the  convention  that  met  at  Lecompton  was 
proslavery.  A  constitution  was  drawn  up  which  sanc 
tioned  slavery  (November,  1857).  By  an  unfair  device  it 
was  decreed  that  the  people  were  to  vote  for  this  constitu 
tion  "with  slavery"  or  for  it  "with  no  slavery."  No  op 
portunity  was  given  to  vote  against  the  constitution  as  a 
whole,  and  even  if  "no  slavery"  carried,  the  constitution 
provided  that  the  "right  of  property  in  slaves"  then  in 
the  territory  should  not  be  interfered  with.  Free  State 
men  refused  to  take  part  in  the  election,  and  the  vote 
stood  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  the  "constitution  with 
slavery." 

The  legislature  then  voted  to  submit  the  constitution 
itself  to  the  people,  and  the  popular  vote  showed  a  majority 
of  over  10,000  against  it.  But  President  Buchanan  had 
determined  to  force  the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the 
Lecompton  constitution  and  recommended  this  action  to 
Congress.  Douglas,  standing  true  to  his  doctrine  of  pop 
ular  sovereignty,  in  spite  of  threats  from  the  administra 
tion  and  from  Southern  Democrats,  attacked  the  Lecomp 
ton  scheme  as  "a  fraud  upon  the  rights  of  the  people." 
The  bill  passed  the  Senate,  but  failed  in  the  House.  Both 
Houses  finally  agreed  to  a  measure  resubmitting  the  ques 
tion  to  Kansas  voters.  Should  they  accept  the  Lecompton 
constitution,  the  State  was  to  receive  a  large  grant  of 
public  lands.  This  attempted  bribe  was  rejected  by  a 
decisive  vote,  and  Kansas  remained  a  territory  until  1861. 

The   election,   in   Illinois,   of   a   successor  to  Senator  The  Lin- 
Douglas  resulted  in  bringing  Abraham  Lincoln,  who  was   Douglas 
the  candidate  of  the  Republicans,  prominently  before  the  debates, 
country.     With   confidence   in   his   cause,   Lincoln   chal 
lenged  Douglas  to  meet  him  in  a  series  of  joint  debates, 
and  seven  places  for  such  meetings  were  selected. 

Lincoln  was  then  the  most  eminent  jury  lawyer  of 
Illinois,  but  was  little  known  outside  the  bounds  of  the 
State.  He  had  served  in  the  Illinois  Legislature  four 


362  American  History 

terms.  Elected  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representa 
tives  in  1847,  he  showed  his  opposition  to  slavery  by 
voting,  as  he  himself  said,  "in  favor  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso 
in  one  way  and  another  about  forty  times."  His  powers 
of  analysis,  his  ability  to  state  problems  clearly,  and  his 
ready  wit  made  him  an  effective  speaker  with  the  people. 
Douglas  was  the  best  known  public  man  in  the  country, 
and  the  ablest  debater  in  the  Senate  at  the  time. 

In  accepting  the  nomination,  Lincoln  had  stated  his  convic 
tions  in  the  famous  words:  "  In  my  opinion,  it  [agitation  against 
slavery]  will  not  cease  until  a  crisis  has  been  reached  and  passed. 
'A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand.'  I  believe  this 
Government  cannot  endure  permanently  half  slave  and  half 
free.  I  do  not  expect  the  Union  to  be  dissolved — I  do  not 
expect  the  House  to  fall,  but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided. 
It  will  become  all  one  thing  or  all  the  other.  Either  the  oppo 
nents  of  slavery  will  arrest  the  further  spread  of  it,  ...  or  its 
advocates  will  push  it  forward  till  it  shall  become  alike  lawful 
in  all  the  States,  old  as  well  as  new — North  as  well  as  South."  * 

Douglas's  Thousands  of  people  attended  the  joint  debates.  The 
doctrine!  climax  was  reached  at  Freeport  when  Lincoln  adroitly  in 
quired  whether  the  people  of  a  territory,  "in  any  lawful 
way,"  could  exclude  slavery  from  its  limits  before  ad 
mission.  In  reply,  Douglas  reasserted  the  doctrine  of 
popular  sovereignty  and  declared  that  the  legislature  of 
a  territory  might  by  "unfriendly  legislation"  prevent  the 
introduction  of  slavery.  This  so-called  Freeport  doctrine 
meant  the  repudiation  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision;  for,  as 
Lincoln  said,  "the  territorial  legislature  can  do  no  more 
than  Congress  can  do."  f  Douglas  was  elected  to  the  Sen 
ate,  but  he  had  lost  the  prize  he  sought,  the  Presidency; 
for  his  influence  over  the  Southern  democracy  was  gone. 

*  Urged  by  his  friends  to  omit  this  statement,  he  replied:  "The  time 
has  come  when  these  sentiments  should  be  uttered;  and  if  it  is  decreed 
that  I  should  go  down  because  of  this  speech  then  let  me  go  down  linked 
to  the  truth — let  me  die  in  the  advocacy  of  what  is  just  and  right." — 
Herndon,  Life  of  Lincoln,  pp.  398,  400. 

t  Statement  made  in  the  debate  at  Jonesboro. 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling        363 


The  defeat  of   Buchanan's   Kansas  policy  in  the  fall  Election 
elections  of   1858  was  decisive.     Douglas  was  the  only  of  1858> 
Northern  Democrat  returned  to  the  Senate,  and  a  Repub 
lican  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
In  a  speech  made  at  Rochester,  Seward  also  took  a  stand 
which  was  to  make  him  a  leader  of  public  opinion.     After 

contrasting  slavery  with  free 
dom  he  declared:  "It  is  an 
irrepressible  conflict  between 
opposing  and  enduring  forces, 
and  it  means  that  the  United 
States  must  and  will,  sooner 
or  later,  become  either  en 
tirely  a  slaveholding  Nation 
or  entirely  a  free-labor 
Nation." 

The  report  that  John  John 
Brown,  with  his  twenty-two 
followers,  had  seized  the 
United  States  arsenal  at  Har 
per's  Ferry  (October  V6, 1859) 
aroused  the  entire  country. 
As  a  leader  in  Kansas,  Brown 
had  freed  a  number  of  slaves 

by  force,  and  now  he  proposed  to  bring  about  the  total 
destruction  of  slavery.  His  plan  was  to  advance  from  a 
spot  in  the  Virginia  mountains  with  a  small  company  of 
men,  liberate  slaves  and  arm  them  or  send  them  to  Can 
ada.  In  this  way,  with  an  enlarged  force  he  thought  to 
make  slaveholding  insecure,  and  thus  the  owners  would 
be  ready  to  give  up  all  their  slaves. 

Prominent  antislavery  leaders  assisted  him  with  money.  The 
scheme  to  attack  Harper's  Ferry  was  unknown  to  them,  and  was 
disapproved  by  his  two  sons  and  all  of  his  other  men.  In  de 
fending  themselves  against  the  militia  which  had  been  hastily 
summoned,  a  number  of  men  on  both  sides  were  killed.  Four 
of  Brown's  followers  escaped,  and  the  survivors  were  made 


per  s 
Ferry 
1859. 


John  Brown 


364 


American  History 


prisoners  by  United  States  troops.  In  a  fair  trial,  Brown  was 
found  guilty  and  was  ordered  to  be  executed  on  the  charge  of 
treason  and  conspiracy  "with  slaves  and  others  to  rebel  and 
murder."  The  act  was  that  of  a  man  who  had  brooded  so  long 
over  freeing  the  slaves  that  his  mind  had  become  unbalanced  on 
that  one  question.  At  the  South,  it  was  believed  that  the  deed 
was  the  outcome  of  the  teachings  of  the  "Black"  Republican 
party.  That  party  in  its  National  Convention  condemned  the 
deed  as  "among  the  gravest  of  crimes."  Emerson  expressed  the 
thought  of  the  men  of  more  extreme  views  when  he  declared: 
"  I  wish  we  might  have  health  enough  to  know  virtue  when  we 
see  it  and  not  cry  with  the  fools,  'madman '  when  a  hero  passes." 


IH3  S.A.Dougl<u 
r?3  John  Bell 
f^J.C.Breckinridgc 
Abraham  Lincoln 


Election  map  of  1860 


The 

Election 
of  1860. 


Thirty-three  States  took  part  in  the  Presidential  election 
of  1860,  Minnesota  having  been  admitted  to  the  Union 
(1858)  and  Oregon  (1859).  No  National  Convention  ever 
excited  greater  interest  than  that  of  the  Democratic  party 
which  assembled  at  Charleston  (April  23,  1860),  with  a 
majority  of  the  delegates  in  favor  of  Douglas  for  President. 
Southern  men  demanded  the  platform  which  declared  that 
citizens  might  take  their  property  into  a  territory  without 
the  right  to  such  property  being  impaired  by  any  legisla 
tion  ;  and  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Federal  Government  to 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling        365 

protect,  when  necessary,  the  "rights  of  persons  and  prop 
erty  in  the  territories."  Northern  Democrats  refused  to 
go  farther  than  to  pledge  support  to  the  Dred  Scott  deci-  split  in 
sion  or  any  other  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court,  an  indef-  cratic 
inite  statement  which  left  them  free  to  advocate  squatter  party, 
sovereignty.  Unable  to  carry  their  point,  most  of  the 
Southern  delegates  withdrew. 
After  fifty-seven  indecisive 
ballots,  the  Convention  adjourn 
ed  to  meet  at  Baltimore,  June  18. 
In  the  Baltimore  Convention 
another  secession  of  Southern 
Democrats  took  place,  and  the 
split  in  the  party  was  complete. 
Douglas  was  then  nominated. 
John  C.  Breckinridge,  of  Ken 
tucky,  was  made  the  candidate 
of  Southern  Democrats  for  President. 

The  "Constitutional  Union  party,"  made  up  chiefly  of  TheCon- 
men  who  were  drawn  from  the  remnants  of  the  "Know-   union™ 
Nothings"  in  the  South  and  Whigs  in  the  North,  in  their  party, 
convention  nominated  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  for  the 
Presidency.    "  No  political  principle  was  to  be  recognized," 
they  declared,  "other  than  the  Constitution  of  the  country, 
the  Union  of  the  States,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  laws." 

There  was  great  enthusiasm  in  the  Republican  Con-  Repubii- 
vention  which  met  at  Chicago  (May  16,  1860).     The  plat-  g^ind 
form  adopted  declared  against  the  Dred  Scott   decision  nomina- 
and  the  principle  of  popular  sovereignty  embodied  in  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Act.     While  there  was  to  be  no  inter 
ference  with  the  domestic  institutions  of  any  State,  the 
right  to  give  legal  existence  to  slavery  in  a  territory  was 
denied.     Of  the  candidates,  Seward  was  at  first  most  in 
favor.     For  Republican  success,  it  was  necessary  to  name 
a  man  who  could  carry  Pennsylvania  and  one  of  the  other 
doubtful  States,  Indiana,  Illinois,  or  New  Jersey,  and  it 
was  seen  that  Seward,  who  was  regarded  as  a  "reckless" 


366  American  History 

radical,  could  not  do  this.  On  the  third  ballot,  Abraham 
Lincoln  was  nominated.  Hannibal  Hamlin,  of  Maine,  was 
nominated  for  Vice-President. 

Abraham         The  campaign,  with  its  torchlight  parades  and   mass- 
Lincoln  ,.  »  ,    .    ,  V  mi       T-» 

elected.  meetings,  was  one  of  most  intense  excitement.  The  Re 
publicans  carried  every  Northern  State  except  New 
Jersey,  which  gave  4  electoral  votes  to  Lincoln  and  3 
to  Douglas.  Of  the  electoral  votes  180  were  for  Lincoln, 
72  for  Breckinridge,  39  for  Bell,  and  12  for  Douglas. 
Lincoln  and  Hamlin  received  1,866,452  votes;  Douglas, 
1,376,957;  Breckinridge,  849,781,  and  Bell,  588,879. 

SUGGESTIVE  REFERENCES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  The  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.     Wilson,  Division 
and  Reunion,  182-185.   Burgess,  Middle  Period,  Chap.  19. 

2.  Kansas  Emigration.     Hart,  Contem.,  IV,  Nos.  36,  38. 

3.  Civil  war  in  Kansas.     Higginson,  Cheerful  Yesterdays,  196- 
234.     Rhodes,  History,  II,  98-107;   150-168. 

4.  Perry's  treaty  with  Japan  and  its  significance?     Schouler, 
History,  V,  255,  314,  418;  Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  151. 

5.  The  Presidential  campaign  of  1856.     How  would  you  have 
voted?     Seward,  Am.  St.  Series,   133-150  (new  ed.).     Wilson, 
Division  and  Reunion,  190-193.    Rhodes,  History  of  the  United 
States,  II,  210-214;  220-236.     Smith,  Parties  and  Slavery,  161- 
173. 

6.  Growth  of  the  factory  system,   1850-1860.     Bogart,  Eco 
nomic  History  of  the  United  States,  160-167.   Wright,  Industrial 
Evolution,  133-142. 

7.  Railroad   extension,    1830-1860.     Coman,   Industrial   His 
tory,  234-241. 

8.  The  Dred  Scott  decision.     Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion, 
197,  198.    Burgess,  The  Middle  Period,  449-459.   Hill,  Liberty 
Documents,  Chap.  21.    Macdonald,  Select  Documents,  No.  91; 
Am.  History  Leaflets,  No.  23.     Smith,  Parties   and    Slavery, 
140-208. 

9.  Lincoln-Douglas   debates.      Lincoln,   Am.    St.    Series,    I, 
Chap.  5.    Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  201,    202.    Rhodes, 
History,  II,  326-338.     Old  South  Leaflets,  No.   85.     Tarbell, 
Abraham  Lincoln,  307-323.   Smith,  Parties  and  Slavery,  230-233. 


Slavery  Extension  and  Sectional  Feeling        367 

10.  Personality  of  Lincoln  and  of  Douglas.     Burgess,  Civil 
War  and  the  Constitution,  1-27.   Schouler,  History,  VI,  20-23; 
624-633.     Rhodes,  History  of  the  United  States,  II,  305-313. 

11.  John  Brown  and  Harper's  Ferry.     Higginson,  Cheerful 
Yesterdays,  199-234;  258-262.  F.  B.  Sanborn,  Life  and  Letters 
of  John  Brown,  620-632   (Higginson  and  Sanborn  were  con 
fidential  friends  of  Brown).    Emerson,  Miscellanies,  267-280. 
Whittier,   Brown  of  Osawatomie.      Blaine,  Twenty  Years  in 
Congress,  I,  154-157.   Larned,  History  for  Ready  Reference,  V, 
3403,  3404.     Rhodes,  History,  II,  401-416. 

12.  The   election   of    1860    and   its   significance.     Scribner's 
Magazine,  XIV,   645-656   (nomination  of  Lincoln).     Lincoln, 
Am.  St.  Series,  I,  Chap.  6.   Seward,  Am.  St.  Series,  Chap.  11. 
Chase,  Am.  St.  Series,  Chap.  7.   Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion, 
204-209.  Blaine,  Twenty  Years  in  Congress,  I,  157-171.     Chad- 
wick,  Causes  of  the  Civil  War,  109-122. 

13.  James  and  Mann,  Readings,  Chap.  22. 

14.  G.  C.  Eggleston,  Dorothy  South  (Virginia  just  before  the 
Civil   War).  A.  W.   Tourgee,    Hot    Plowshares    (antislavery). 
Winston  Churchill,  The  Crisis. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


The  atti 
tude  of 
Buchanan 
toward 
threatened 
secession. 


The  seces 
sion  of 
South 
Carolina  . 
and  six 
other 
States. 


SECESSION  AND  CIVIL  WAR 

THREATS  of  secession  in  the  event  of  Lincoln's  election 
had  been  freely  made,  but  they  were  not  taken  seriously 
in  the  North.  Much  significance  attached  to  the  attitude 
and  policy  of  President  Buchanan  during  the  four  re 
maining  months  of  his  term.  He  was  at  first  under  the 
influence  of  certain  advisers  in  his  Cabinet  who  sym 
pathized  with  the  secession  movement.  His  position  was 
now  extremely  weak  and  vacillating.  In  his  message  to 
Congress  (December  3,  1860)  the  President  denied  the 
constitutional  right  of  secession;  but  he  also  denied  that 
the  National  Government  had  a  right  to  coerce  a  State. 
He  said  that  as  yet  the  Southern  States  had  no  just  cause 
for  seceding;  but,  if  the  Northern  States  did  not  repeal 
their  personal  liberty  laws,  then  revolutionary  resistance 
to  the  Government  would  be  justifiable. 

In  Congress  efforts  were  made  to  compromise  the  dis 
puted  slavery  questions,  but  no  general  agreement  was 
reached.  "The  difficulty  was  that  the  Republican  leaders 
were  themselves  opposed  to  any  compromise  and  -  the 
Southern  leaders  really  desired  none."  *  On  December 
20,  a  convention  called  by  the  Legislature  of  South  Caro 
lina  repealed  the  ordinance  by  which  that  State  had  ratified 
the  United  States  Constitution,  in  1788,  and  declared  that 
the  State  was  again  a  "free  and  independent  nation." 
This  action  was  followed  by  the  adoption  of  similar  seces- 

*  Chadwick,  Causes  of  the  Civil  War,  176.  Senator  Crittenden,  of 
Kentucky,  was  prominent  in  proposing  compromise  measures. 

368 


Abraham  Lincoln 

From  a  photograph  by  Brady,  taken  at  the  time  of  his  speech  at  Cooper  Institute,  New  York-,  in  February, 
Mr,  Lincoln  said  that  this  speech  and  the  portrait  here  reproduced  made  him  President 


370 


American  History 


The  argu 
ment  for 
State  sov 
ereignty 
and  the 
right  of 
secession. 


The  argu 
ment  for 
National 
sov 
ereignty. 


sion  ordinances  by  conventions  in  Mississippi  (January  9, 
1861),    Florida    (January    10),    Alabama    (January    11), 
Georgia    (January    19),    Louisiana    (January    26),    and 
Texas  (February  1). 

The  arguments  and  causes  stated  in  justification  of  the 
legal  right  of  secession  were  drawn  from  Calhoun's  teach 
ings.  They  were  well  set  forth  in  South  Carolina's 
ordinance,*  and  were  answered  by  Lincoln  in  his  in 
augural  address  of  March  4,  1861.f  From  these  two 
documents,  then,  we  may  draw  a  fair  summary  of  the 
points  in  dispute. 

1.  As  to  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  State  and  Na 
tional  governments,  it  was  argued  that  (a)  by  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  each  colony  became  a  free 
and  independent  State,  and  that  each  exercised  its  sepa 
rate  sovereignty;  (b)  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
each  State  retained  its  "  sovereignty,  freedom,  and  inde 
pendence";  (c)  by  the  treaty  of  1783  the  freedom  and 
sovereignty  of  the  separate  States  were  acknowledged; 
(d)  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  was  merely  the  form 
ing  of  a  compact,  the  General  Government  being  the 
common  agent  of  the  sovereign  States,  having  powers  that 
were  limited  to  the  express  terms  of  the  grant;  (e)  in 
every  compact  "the  failure  of  one  of  the  contracting  par 
ties  to  perform  a  material  part  of  the  agreement,  entirely 
releases  the  obligation  of  the  other." 

To  this  argument  Lincoln  replied  that  (a)  the  Union  is 
older  than  the  Constitution.  Originating  in  1774,  it  was 
strengthened  by  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  by 
the  adoption  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  It  was 
made  "more  perfect"  by  the  Constitution,  (b)  "Per 
petuity  is  implied,  if  not  expressed,  in  the  fundamental 
law  of  all  national  governments.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no 
government  proper  ever  had  a  provision  in  its  organic  law 
for  its  own  termination."  (c)  If  the  Constitution  were  a 


*  American  History  Leaflets,  No.  12. 

t  American  History  Leaflets,  No.  18  and  Old  South  Leaflets,  No- 11. 


Secession  and  Civil  War  371 

mere  compact,  it  could  not  be  legally  broken  by  less  than 
all  the  parties  who  made  it.  (d)  Therefore,  no  State, 
upon  its  own  mere  motion,  can  lawfully  withdraw  from 
the  Union. 

2.  As   to   the   causes   leading   to   secession,    the  ordi-  Grievances 
nance  of  South  Carolina  stated  that  (a)  fourteen  of  the 


Northern  States  had  deliberately  refused  to  fulfill  their 
Constitutional  obligations  with  reference  to  fugitive 
staves  by  obstructing  Federal  laws  and  passing  laws  cal 
culated  to  nullify  them,  (b)  The  North  had  violated  the 
spirit  of  the  Constitution  by  denouncing  slavery  as  sinful; 
by  permitting  abolition  societies  to  flourish;  by  denying 
the  right  of  slave  property  in  territories;  by  admitting 
negroes  to  citizenship;  and,  finally,  by  forming  a  sec 
tional  party  and  electing  to  the  Presidency  a  man  who 
believed  that  slavery  could  not  permanently  endure  in 
America,  (c)  In  consequence,  the  equal  rights  of  the 
Southern  States  would  be  lost.  "The  slaveholding 
States  will  no  longer  have  the  power  of  self-government, 
or  self-protection,  and  the  Federal  Government  will  have 
become  their  enemy." 

Answering  these  statements,  Lincoln  declared  that  (a)   The 
the  slavery  questions  upon  which  Northerners  and  South-  ^^  el 
erners  differed  must  be  decided  by  majorities.     If  the 
minority  were  not  satisfied  with  the  decisions,  their  only 
alternative  was  revolution,     (b)  The  Republicans  had  no 
intention  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  any  State;   on  the 
contrary,  they  had  recommended  a  Constitutional  amend 
ment  providing  that  the  Federal  Government  should  never 
interfere  with  it  there. 

During  the  months  when  secession  was  contemplated  and   Active 
accomplished,  the  authorities  of  the  seceding  States  seized 


nineteen  forts  and  seven  arsenals  situated  within  their  bor-  war  made 
ders,  together  with  vast  amounts  of  arms  and  ammunition  seceding 
belonging  to  the  United  States  Government.     Only  four  states. 
forts  remained  in  the  hands  of  Federal  troops  :  Sumter,  in 
Charleston  harbor;    Taylor,  at  Key  West;    Jefferson,  at 


372 


American  History 


The  for 
mation  of 
the  Con 
federacy. 


The  Con 
federate 
Constitu 
tion. 


Tortugas;  and  Pickens,  at  Pensacola.  At  the  same  time 
Southern  State  legislatures  organized  armies  and  ap 
propriated  large  sums  of  money  for  military  purposes.  In 
Charleston  harbor,  Major  Robert  Anderson  removed  his 
small  command  from  Fort  Moultrie  to  Fort  Sumter,  the 
latter  being  easier  of  defence.  Work  was  carried  on  in 

preparation  for  resisting  an 
attack;  but  the  Government 
at  Washington  took  no  ac 
tive  measures  to  make  Fort 
Sumter  secure.  President 
Buchanan  even  permitted 
himself  to  reply  to  com 
missioners  from  South  Caro 
lina  who  demanded  its 
surrender.  In  January  a 
weak  attempt  was  made  to 
reenforce  Sumter;  instead 
of  sending  a  man-of-war 
the  Government  dispatched 
the  Star  of  the  West,  a  mer 
chant  vessel,  with  provisions 
and  recruits  from  New  York. 
This  was  fired  upon  from  Fort  Moultrie  and  turned  back. 
On  February  4,  1861,  delegates  from  the  seven  seced 
ing  States  met  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  and  drew  up  a 
provisional  constitution  for  the  "  Confederate  States  of 
America."  They  elected  Jefferson  Davis  President,  and 
Alexander  H.  Stephens  Vice-President.  A  permanent  con 
stitution  was  later  adopted,  and  this  went  into  effect  in  1862. 

The  Confederate  Constitution  was  modelled  upon  that  of  the 
United  States.  But  it  provided  expressly  for  the  sovereignty 
of  the  States;  forbade  protective  tariffs;  expressly  confirmed 
the  right  of  property  in  slaves;  provided  for  the  protection  of 
slave  property  in  any  territory  acquired;  and  made  the  Presi 
dent  ineligible  for  a  second  election,  after  a  term  of  six  years. 
Cabinet  members  might  debate,  but  not  vote,  in  Congress,  and 
the  President  might  veto  individual  items  of  appropriation  bills. 


Jefferson  Davis 
From  a  painting  in  the  Westmorelanc 
Richmond.  Va.,  by  permission 


Secession  and  Civil  War  373 

President  Davis,  previously  a  Senator  from  Mississippi,  was  a    Davis  and 
radical  State  sovereignty  man;   he  was  well  qualified  by  political    Stephens, 
experience  for  his  position.  Alexander  H.  Stephens  was  physically 
almost  an  invalid,  but  by  the  power  of  a  strong  will  he  had 
become  active  and  influential  in  the  politics  of  Georgia.     He 
had  opposed  secession,   but,   like  many  other  Southerners  of 
prominence,  he  considered  himself  bound  to  follow  the  fortunes 
of  his  State.     His  election  was  a  recognition  of  the  old  Southern 
Whig  element  and  of  the  importance  of  Georgia  in  the  Con 
federacy. 

From  February  4  to  27,  a  Peace  Conference  held  its  An  effort 
sessions  in  Washington,  twenty-one  States  (fourteen  non-  conciliate, 
slaveholding  and  seven  slaveholding)  being  represented. 
The  delegates  were  men  prominent  in  public  life,  and  ex- 
President  John  Tyler  was  the  chairman.  Recommenda 
tions  were  adopted  for  Constitutional  amendments  strength 
ening  the  position  of  slavery.  But  these  were  not  ac 
cepted  by  Congress.  The  latter  passed  a  resolution  pro 
posing  an  amendment  to  the  effect  that  the  Constitution 
should  never  authorize  Congress  to  interfere  with  slavery 
in  any  State.  The  Republican  leaders  showed  their  con 
servatism  in  supporting  this  amendment,  and  they  voted 
for  a  law  organizing  the  territories  of  Colorado,  Nevada, 
and  Dakota  without  any  restriction  as  to  slavery.  The 
Southern  leaders,  on  the  other  hand,  desired  no  such 
concessions.  They  were  either  convinced  that  a  separate 
slaveholding  confederacy  was  desirable,  or  that  the 
Southern  States  could  make  still  better  terms  for  slavery 
when  out  of  the  Union.  Few  believed  that  the  North 
would  fight  to  preserve  the  Union;  as  few  Northerners  be 
lieved  that  secession  would  be  maintained  by  force  of  arms. 

In  his  first  inaugural  address,  President  Lincoln  skil-  Lincoln's 
fully  turned  aside  the  thoughts  of  the  people  from  per-  JSugurai 
plexing  slavery  questions  *  and  centered  them  upon  the  March  4, 
momentous  issue  involved  in  the  preservation  or  the  dissolu-  * 

*  He  stated  the  policy  of  the  Republican  party  as  his  own  in  saying, 
"  I  have  no  purpose,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  interfere  with  the  institu 
tion  of  slavery  where  it  exists.  I  believe  I  have  no  lawful  right  to  do 
so,  and  I  have  no  inclination  to  do  so." 


374 


American  History 


The 
Cabinet. 


Attempt 
to  relieve 
Fort 
Sumter. 


Effects  of 
the  firing 
on  Fort 
Sumter. 


tion  of  the  Union.  From  his  standpoint  the  Union  was 
still  unbroken;  "acts  of  violence  against  the  authority  of 
the  United  States  are  insurrectionary  or  revolutionary." 
It  was  his  sworn  duty  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Nation 
and  "to  hold,  occupy,  and  possess  the  property  belonging 
to  the  Government."  He  stated  in  clearest  terms  the  argu 
ment  against  the  constitutionality 
of  secession,  and  closed  with  an 
appeal  to  the  better  natures  of  his 
dissatisfied  countrymen  of  the 
South.  The  inaugural  tended  to 
unify  Northern  sentiment,  and  the 
same  effect  followed  the  selection 
of  the  Cabinet,  with  Seward, 
formerly  an  antislavery  Whig, 
as  Secretary  of  State,  and 
Chase,  formerly  an  antislavery 
Democrat,  as  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  Simon  Cameron 
was  made  Secretary  of  War, 
and  Gideon  Welles  became  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

For  several  weeks  Lincoln  made  no  attempt  to  recapt 
ure  the  forts  that  had  been  seized  by  Southern  States,  for 
fear  of  seeming  to  become  the  aggressor.  In  the  mean 
time,  provisions  were  running  low  at  Fort  Sumter.  Lin 
coln  finally  determined  that  an  expedition  should  go  from 
New  York  to  its  relief.  Thereupon  the  Confederate 
authorities  decided  to  reduce  the  fort  before  this  succor 
could  arrive.  Consequently,  the  early  morning  of  April 
12  saw  Fort  Sumter  the  center  of  fire  from  batteries  ten 
times  its  strength  in  Charleston  harbor.  For  thirty-four 
hours  the  brave  garrison  held  out,  and  then  made  an 
honorable  surrender. 

The  effect  of  this  event  was  tremendous.  The  firing 
upon  the  flag  went  far  toward  unifying  Northern  senti 
ment.  In  the  South,  too,  there  was  great  enthusiasm. 
On  April  15,  President  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation 


Salmon  P.  Chase 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


375 


calling  out  75,000  militia  to  suppress  the  insurrection. 
To  adherents  of  State  sovereignty  doctrines,  it  was  now 
certain  that  the  sacred  limits  of  their  States  were  to  be 
"invaded"   by  Federal  troops.     Consequently,  Virginia, 
Tennessee,    Arkan 
sas,  and  North  Car 
olina  soon  withdrew 
from  the  Union. 

The  secession 
of  Virginia  was  of  the 
greatest  importance, 
on  account  of  her  rank 
in  population  and 
wealth  and  her  geo 
graphical  position. 
She  carried  out  of  the 
Union  two  of  her  most 
brilliant  sons — Robert 
E.  Lee  and  Thomas  J. 
Jackson,  both  West 
Point  graduates.  The 
Confederate  Govern 
ment  seized  Harper's  Ferry,  the  navy  yard  near  Norfolk,  and 
ships,  cannon,  powder,  etc.,  worth  $10,000,000. 

Events  now  moved  rapidly.  President  Davis  issued  a  The  block- 
proclamation  inviting  the  owners  of  vessels  to  accept  let- 
ters  of  marque,  and  thus,  as  privateers,  to  prey  upon 
Northern  commerce.  President  Lincoln  responded  with 
a  proclamation  declaring  a  blockade  of  all  Southern  terri 
tory.  It  was  made  a  crime  for  any  person  to  trade  with 
the  people  of  the  States  in  insurrection  either  by  land  or 
by  water.  As  soon  as  possible  vessels  were  stationed  out 
side  the  harbors  of  all  Southern  ports  to  stop  foreign  com 
merce.  In  the  course  of  a  year  or  two  this  blockade 
became  very  effective,  for,  with  the  exception  of  an  occa 
sional  "blockade-runner,"  no  vessel  could  enter  or  leave 
a  Southern  port.  The  main  source  of  income  at  the 
South — the  sale  of  cotton — was  now  cut  off,  and  the  pro- 


Charleston  Harbor 


376 


American  History 


The  ac 
knowledg 
ment  of 
belliger 
ency  by 
foreign 
nations. 


curing  of  arms  and  ammunition  was  rendered  very  diffi 
cult.  The  cotton  crop,  was  also  the  basis  for  Confederate 
credit  abroad,  and  the  blockade  indirectly  injured  the 
sale  of  Confederate  bonds. 

On  May  third  a  second  call  for  troops  was  issued  by 
Lincoln;  this  time  for  volunteers  to  enlarge  the  regular 
army.  Similar  calls  were  made  by  the  Confederate  Gov 
ernment.  Eager  responses  came  from  both  sections.  The 
capital  of  the  Confederacy  was  now  moved  to  Richmond, 
and  it  was  evident  that  each  side  would  strive  to  capture 
the  other's  capital  city. 

The  English  Government  first,  and  later,  other  Euro 
pean  nations,  announced  that  they  recognized  the  Con 
federate  States  as  belligerents.  From  their  standpoint 
the  Southern  Government  was  not  in  insurrection,  but 
was  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Federal  Government 
as  a  party  to  the  war.  These  nations  would  now  be  sup 
posed  to  observe  the  rules  governing  neutrals  in  their 
relations  with  both  sections.  This  action  was  extremely 
favorable  to  the  Confederacy,  and  its  officers  hoped  next 
to  secure  the  recognition  of  its  independence. 

The  recognition  of  the  Confederacy  as  a  belligerent  by  Euro 
pean  powers  is  regarded  as  justifiable  by  the  best  authorities, 
inasmuch  as  Lincoln's  blockade  proclamation  virtually  ac 
knowledged  that  a  state  of  war  existed.*  If  the  Confederate 
people  were  belligerents,  then,  from  the  standpoint  of  inter 
national  law,  they  were  not  rebels  and  had  not  committed  trea 
son;  consequently,  if  captured  or  conquered,  they  must  be 
treated  as  prisoners  of  war  and  not  as  traitors.  Such  treatment 
was,  in  fact,  accorded  to  them.  In  the  ports  of  the  European 
powers  acknowledging  belligerency,  Confederate  vessels  were  en 
titled  to  the  same  privileges  as  vessels  of  the  United  States  navy. 

The  battle  There  now  arose  throughout  the  North  the  cry,  "On 
Bull  Run  to  Richmond."  This  could  not  be  resisted  indefinitely, 
July  21,  though  the  army  protecting  Washington  was  yet  in  a  raw 
and  undisciplined  state.  Accordingly,  on  July  21,  1861, 

*  See  Foster,  A  Century  of  American  Diplomacy,  336-337.  Rhodes, 
History  of  United  States,  III,  420,  note. 


1861. 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


377 


a  force  of  30,000  troops  under  General  McDowell  moved 
against    the    Confederate    army    stationed    at    Manassas 
Junction,  under  General  Beauregard.     At  first,  the  battle 
was  favorable  to  the  Federal  troops,  but  in  the  afternoon 
reinforcements  were  brought  to  their  opponents  by  rail 
from  the  Shenandoah  valley.     The  result  was  defeat  and 
a  disgraceful   panic 
that   carried  the 
Union   troops   back 
to  Washington  badly 
demoralized.      The 
effect  of  this  battle 
upon  the  North  was 
salutary;  it  aroused 
their  determination, 
and  showed  that  dis 
cipline  and  thorough 

preparation  were  CS-  The  Vicinity  of  Washington 

sential.   In  the  South 

there  was  undue  elation;  the  opinion  that  all  "Yankees'* 
were  cowards  was  strengthened,  and  the  general  effect 
was  anything  but  good. 

It  was  now  evident  that  a  great  war  was  to  follow.     Let  Com- 
us  glance  at  the  resources  and  advantages  upon  which 
each  side  could  count  in  the  struggle.     1.  The  North  South, 
greatly  exceeded  the  South  in  both  population  and  wealth.* 
This  advantage  was  to  a  considerable  extent  offset  by  the 
fact  that  the  North  must  assume  the  offensive,  while  the 
South  was  to  act  on  the  defensive.f    The  South  also  had 
the  moral  advantage  accruing  to  the  army  that  stands  in 
defence  of  its  homes,  as  against  the  troops  who  attempt  to 
invade  and  conquer  a  strange  country.     Besides,  there  is 


tion  and 
wealth. 


*  In  the  eleven  seceding  States  there  lived  9,000,000  people,  3,500,000 
of  whom  were  slaves.  The  population  of  the  twenty-three  loyal  States 
was  22,000,000. 

t  The  proportion  of  5:2  in  population  is  regarded  by  authorities  as  not 
too  large  to  match  evenly  the  sections  in  view  of  this  fact. 


378 


American  History 


Indus 
tries. 


the  fact  in  military  science  that  the  former  army  may 
operate  on  "interior  lines/'  thus  covering  a  smaller  terri 
tory  in  their  movements.  The  various  detachments  of 
this  army  may  thus  be  in  closer  contact  with  each  other 
than  are  the  wings  of  the  attacking  army,  and  the  trans 
portation  of  troops  and  supplies  becomes  a  simpler 
problem. 

2.  In  the  number  and  extent  of  its  industries,  the  North 
greatly  surpassed  the  South.     Since  the  latter  was  par- 


The  United  States  in  1861 


Character 
of  people. 


tially  dependent  upon  other  sections  for  its  food  supply, 
it  must  to  some  extent  change  its  crops;  further,  new  in 
dustries  must  rise  in  the  form  of  foundries,  mills,  and 
factories. 

3.  The  North  was  a  land  of  business  men,  many  of 
them  accustomed  to  the  prompt  and  efficient  management 
of  large  undertakings.  In  the  South,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  find  a  people  showing  greater  aptitude  for  army  life 
than  were  the  shopkeepers,  clerks,  and  mechanics  of  the 
North;  this  is  accounted  for  by  their  agricultural  life,  their 
constant  use  of  fire-arms,  and  their  skill  in  horsemanship. 


Secession  and  Civil  War  379 

4.  The  commerce  of  the  North  was  one  of  its  chief  ad-  commerce 
vantages.     Its   great  merchant  marine  was   at  first   un-  and  nayy- 
protected,  and,  as  a  consequence,  many  vessels  were  capt 
ured  by  Confederate  cruisers ;  the  owners  of  many  others 
transferred   them  to   the   flags   of   neutral   nations.     Yet 
facilities  for  converting  merchantmen  into  war-ships  and 

for  building  new  ones  were  abundant,  and  a  large  navy 
was  rapidly  acquired.  In  the  South,  on  the  other  hand, 
few  vessels  were  owned  and  there  were  inadequate  facili 
ties  for  ship-building. 

5.  The  North  had  the  traditions  and  the  machinery  of  Govern- 
a  well-established  government.     On  the  other  hand,  the 
Confederacy  had  a  President  who  was  a  West  Point  gradu 
ate,  and  a  group  of  talented  generals,  similarly  trained. 

6.  The  importance  of  physical  geography  in  determin-   Physical 
ing  the  course  of  the  war  can  hardly  be  overestimated.   fjf5£?phy 
Speaking   broadly,  we   may  say  that  in  the   East   geo-  East. 
graphical  conditions  favored  the  Confederacy,  while  in  the 

West  the  advantage  was  with  the  Union  forces.  The 
Federal  army  in  Virginia  found  a  succession  of  broad 
rivers  lying  across  their  line  of  progress  toward  Richmond. 
Bridges  were  few,  and  rains  frequently  rendered  their 
fords  impassable.  The  Virginia  swamps  and  forests  con 
stituted  another  barrier.  The  Shenandoah  valley  gave 
the  Confederate  army  a  great  advantage.  Besides  its 
food-producing  capacity,  this  valley  formed  a  sheltered 
highway  for  incursions  into  Northern  territory.  These 
raids  brought  the  Confederate  troops  dangerously  near  to 
Washington ;  while  a  counter  attack  by  the  Union  troops 
was  rendered  less  effective  by  the  westward  trend  of  the 
valley,  which  carried  them  farther  away  from  Richmond 
as  it  proceeded  southward.  Counterbalancing  to  some 
extent  the  advantage  of  the  Shenandoah  valley,  the  North 
used  Chesapeake  Bay  as  a  highway  for  moving  troops  and 
supplies  toward  Richmond. 

West  of  the  mountains,  broad  water-ways  led  from  Union  in  the 
soil  into  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy.     By  way  of  the  West- 


380 


American  History 


The  border 
States. 


Efforts  to 
obtain 
foreign 
recogni 
tion. 


Tennessee  and  Cumberland  rivers  the  first  great  ad 
vance  was  made,  while  the  Mississippi  River  furnished  the 
opportunity  for  cutting  the  Confederacy  in  two.  These 
water-ways  were  much  more  effective  for  the  movement 
and  supply  of  an  army  than  were  either  wagon  roads  or 
railways.  The  lack  of  river  steamers,  and  the  means  of 
building  them,  in  the  South,  gave  these  advantages  to  her 
opponents. 

In  determining  the  lines  along  which  the  armies  were  to 
contend,  as  well  as  their  relative  strength,  much  depended  upon 
the  attitude  of  the  border  States.  The  people  in  Maryland,  in 
general  Southern  sympathizers  and  at  first  defiant  of  National 
authority,  were  soon  controlled  by  the  presence  of  Federal 
troops.  Physical  geography  .determined  the  opposition  of  the 
western  counties  of  Virginia  to  the  secession  of  that  State. 
Here  a  convention  acted  upon  the  legal  theory  that  the  State 
government  of  Virginia  remained  in  the  hands  of  its  loyal  citi 
zens.  Subsequently,  a  new  State  government  was  formed  and 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  West  Virginia  (1862). 

In  Missouri,  the  issue  between  the  two  forces  was  for  some 
time  doubtful.  Much  credit  is  due  to  Francis  Blair  and  General 
Lyon  for  organizing  the  loyal  citizens  and  finally  securing  con 
trol  of  the  State  government.  But  many  battles  were  yet  to 
be  fought  before  the  Confederate  army  was  driven  from  Mis 
souri.  In  Kentucky,  a  strong  faction,  including  the  Governor, 
wished  to  keep  that  State  in  a  condition  of  "armed  neutrality." 
But  this  movement  was  overcome  by  a  loyal  Legislature,  while 
through  the  tact  of  President  Lincoln,  acts  of  aggression  on 
Kentucky  soil,  which  would  have  alienated  many  of  wavering 
allegiance,  were  carefully  avoided. 

In  all  the  border  States,  the  people  furnished  reinforcements 
to  both  armies.  The  eastern  sections  of  Kentucky  and  Ten 
nessee,  where  slavery  could  not  flourish  on  account  of  physical 
conditions,  were  strongly  loyal  to  the  Union.  From  this  region 
thousands  of  troops  went  into  the  Union  army. 

The  Confederacy  strove  from  the  beginning  to  gain 
the  friendly  influence  of  European  governments,  hoping 
to  be  recognized  by  them  as  an  independent  nation.  This 
would  result  very  favorably  in  the  financial  centers  of 
Europe.  It  was  also  hoped  that  foreign  governments  would 
take  the  more  radical  step  of  intervention  by  force,  for 


Secession  and  Civil  War  381 

the   purpose    of   compelling  the   North   to   abandon   the 
blockade.     James  M.  Mason,  of  Virginia,  and  John  Sli- 
dell,  of  Louisiana,  were  accredited  by  the  Confederacy  as 
Ministers  to  England  and  France  respectively.    In  October,   The  Trent 
1861,  they  passed  through  the  blockade,  landed  at  Havana,   affair- 
and  soon  after  sailed  for  England  in  the  British  merchant 
vessel  Trent.    Captain  Wilkes  commanding  a  United  States 
war-ship,  overtook  the  Trent  near  the  Bahama  Islands, 
and  forcibly  removed  Mason  and  Slidell.     He  then  allowed 
the  Trent  to  proceed  on  its  voyage. 

The  excitement  following  the  news  of  this  incident  was  in-  its  fortu- 
tense.  In  the  United  States  Wilkes  was  hailed  as  a  hero,  g^ement 
receiving  the  thanks  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  Con 
gress.  In  England,  both  official  and  popular  hostility  were 
displayed,  and  active  preparations  for  war  were  begun. 
The  British  Government  demanded  the  release  of  the  pris 
oners  and  an  apology.  Careful  consideration  of  the  case 
by  Lincoln  and  Seward  led  them  to  the  conclusion  that 
Wilkes's  act  could  not  be  justified.  It  was  apparent  that 
Mason  and  .Slidell  with  their  official  papers  might  be  re 
garded  as  contraband  and  so  subject  to  seizure  on  the 
vessel  of  a  neutral  power.  But  the  vessel  should  have 
been  conveyed  to  a  port  of  the  United  States,  where  a 
court  of  admiralty  might  determine  the  facts  before 
seizure  should  be  made.  Wilkes  had  erred  in  not  follow 
ing  this  procedure.  Since  the  United  States  Government 
had  not  authorized  his  act,  it  was  now  in  a  position  to  dis 
avow  it  without  suffering  loss  of  dignity.  The  Confeder 
ate  agents  were  therefore  released.  Thus  a  possible  war 
lhat  would  have  been  disastrous  to  the  Nation  was  avoided. 

As  the  result  of  Union  successes  in  all  of  the  border  Operations 
States,  the  Northern  limit  of  the  Confederacy  was  pushed 
considerably  South  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line.  In  the 
West,  Confederate  troops  held  Columbus,  New  Madrid, 
and  Island  No.  10  on  the  Mississippi;  also  Forts  Henry 
and  Donelson,  on  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  rivers, 
and  Bowling  Green,  a  railway  junction  in  central  Ken- 


382 


American  History 


Union 

advance, 

1862. 


tucky.  Union  forces  were  stationed  at  St.  Louis,  Cairo 
(Illinois),  and  Paducah  (at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee 
River).  From  the  last  point,  General  Halleck,  command 
ing  the  army  in  the  West,  ordered  General  Grant  to  pro 
ceed  against  the  cen 
ter  of  the  Confeder 
ate  line  of  defence. 
Accordingly,  Grant's 
army  was  transport 
ed  up  the  Tennessee 
River  and,  supported 
by  a  flotilla  of  gun 
boats  under  Commo 
dore  Foote,  secured 
at  once  the  surren 
der  of  Fort  Henry 
(February  6,  1862). 
Fort  Donelson  made 
brave  resistance,  but 
fell  soon  after.  The 
Confederate  prison- 
ers  numbered 
15,000. 

This  advance  in 
the  center  ren 
dered  Columbus 
and  Bowling  Green 
untenable,  and 
they  were  aban 
doned  by  the  Confederates.  New  Madrid  and  Island 
No.  10  fell  after  a  vigorous  attack  by  the  Union  fleet. 
At  the  same  time  a  Union  army  under  Buell  ad 
vanced  to  Nashville,  from  which  the  Confederates  with 
drew  toward  Chattanooga.  Between  Memphis  and  Chat 
tanooga  ran  an  important  line  of  railway,  and  its 
center  was  held  by  an  army  under  General  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston,  at  Corinth,  where  this  line  connected 


GULF      OF    MEXICO 


The  Seat  of  War  in  the  West 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


383 


Shiloh. 


with  a  north  and  south  railway  running  through  Miss 
issippi. 

The  next  advance  of  Grant's  forces  took  his  army  to  Battle  of 
Pittsburg  Landing  on  the  Tennessee  River.  Here  John 
ston's  army  attacked  him,  and  one  of  the  most  bloody  and 
decisive  battles  of  the  war  wras  fought — the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
April  6-7,  1862.  After  a  partial  defeat  on  the  first  day, 
the  Union  forces,  reenforced  by  Buell,  drove  the  Con 
federates  from  the  field  on  the  second.  General  John- 


The  Cairo — A  Mississippi  River  Gunboat 
From  a  photograph 


ston  was  killed  during  the  battle  and  General  Beauregard 
succeeded  to  the  command.  To  say  that  the  losses  in 
killed  and  wounded  on  each  side  were  not  far  from  10,000 
men,  conveys  but  a  slight  idea  of  the  horrors  attending 
this  important  victory.  Corinth  soon  fell  into  Federal 
hands.  This  compelled  the  abandonment  of  Memphis, 
and  the  Mississippi  River  was  open  as  far  as  Vicksburg. 
Vigorous  advance  movements  might  now  have  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  and  Chattanooga;  but  this 
was  not  to  be.  The  first  attempts  against  Vicksburg 
were  unsuccessful;  while  much  more  fighting  was  nee- 


384 


American  History 


The  capt 
ure  of 
New  Or 
leans, 
1862. 


The  Mon 
itor  and 
Merrimac. 


essary*  before  the  Confederate  army  under  Bragg  was 
finally  compelled  to  withdraw  to  Chattanooga. 

In  April,  1862,  Admiral  Farragut  captured  New  Orleans. 
With  his  fleet  of  gun-boats  he  silenced  the  forts  (Jackson 
and  St.  Philip)  which 
guarded  this  city,  and  at 
the  same  time  destroyed 
the  Confe'derate  river 
fleet.  The  loss  of  New 
Orleans  was  a  heavy 
blow  to  the  Confederacy. 

At  the  same  time  prog 
ress  was  being  made 
along  the  Atlantic  sea 
board,  where  the  Fed 
eral  navy  seized  many 
important  points. f  But 
disaster  to  the  navy  and 
danger  to  Washington 
were  threatened  when  the 

Confederates  constructed  at  Norfolk  navy  yard  a  new  kind 
of-  war-vessel  protected  by  an  iron  armor.f  On  March  8, 
1862,  this  war-ship,  known  as  the  Merrimac,  attacked  and 
sunk  in  Hampton  Roads  two  of  the  best  vessels  of  the 
Union  fleet,  and  on  the  day  following  returned  to  destroy 
two  more  steam  frigates,  each  carrying  forty  guns,  but  ut 
terly  powerless  against  the  Merrimac.  By  one  of  the  most 
fortunate  and  dramatic  coincidences  in  our  history,  there 
had  arrived  during  the  night  from  New  York  another  type 

*  Bragg's  army  made  a  raid  northward,  drawing  the  Union  army 
under  Buell  into  a  race  back  through  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  as  far  as 
Louisville.  Then  Rosecrans  succeeded  Buell,  and,  in  turn,  the  Con 
federates  withdrew  southward.  Later,  Bragg  was  defeated  at  Murfrees- 
boro  (December  30,  1862- January  2,  1863). 

t  Forts  were  taken  at  Hatteras  Inlet,  North  Carolina;  •  and  at  Port 
Royal,  South  Carolina,  causing  the  evacuation  of  Beaufort.  Tybee  Island, 
near  Savannah,  and  Roanoke  Island,  North  Carolina,  were  captured. 

%  England  and  France  had  previously  built  a  few  iron-clad  vessels. 


John  Ericsson 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


385 


of  iron-clad — the  Monitor,  invented  by  John  Ericsson. 
Upon  the  low  deck  of  a  vessel  an  armored  turret  had  been 
erected,  carrying  two  guns  and  revolved  by  machinery 
placed  in  the  hold  beneath.  The  battle  that  ensued 
determined  the  superiority  of  this  vessel  over  the  Merrimac. 
As  the  result  of  this  test  of  iron-clads  against  wooden  ves 
sels,  the  navies  of  the  world  had  to  be  rebuilt.- 

After  the  defeat  at  Bull  Run,  the  Government  called  to  McCiei- 
the  command  of  its  army  at  Washington   a  young  and  peninsular 
brilliant  officer  who  had  been  winning  success  for  the  campaign, 
Union  in  western  Virginia,  General  George  B.  McClellan. 


Transverse  Section  of  the  Monitor  through  the  Center  of  the  Turret 

During  the  remainder  of  1861  and  the  winter  that  fol 
lowed,  McClellan  accomplished  a  great  service  in  organ 
izing  and  training  the  army  under  his  charge.  He  pro 
posed  to  attack  Richmond  by  way  of  the  peninsula 
between  the  York  and  James  rivers.  His  plan  was  finally 
agreed  upon,  though  it  involved  great  risks;  (1)  because  it 
necessitated  the  withdrawal  of  the  largest  part  of  the 
army  from  the  defence  of  Washington,  and  (2)  because 
the  Merrimac,  then  at  Norfolk,  might  threaten  his  com 
munications.*  Landing  his  army  of  53,000  at  Fort 
Monroe  April,  1862,  McClellan  laid  siege  to  Yorktown, 
where  he  was  opposed  by  11,000  Confederates  under 
General  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  In  this  part  of  the  cam- 

*  In  May,  1862,  Norfolk  was  captured  and  the  Merrimac  was  sunk  by 
the  Confederates. 


386 


American  History 


paign  McClellan  displayed  his  great  weakness  as  a  com 
mander — irresolution,  slowness,  and  continual  over- 
estimation  of  difficulties  and  of  the  enemy's  forces. 
When  his  army,  after  several  weeks,  finally  reached  the 
vicinity  of  Richmond,  the  reinforcements  that  McClellan 
had  expected  to  receive  from  Washington  were  denied  him, 
.,,  ~  -— x  for  the  reason  that  the  Confed 

erates  were  making  a  counter- 
demonstration  down  the  Shenan- 
doah  valley,  and  all  available 
troops  were  needed  for  the  de 
fence  of  Washington.  McClellan 
regarded  himself  as  seriously  ham 
pered.  His  army  was  now  vigor 
ously  attacked  by  the  enemy  in 
a  series  of  battles  lasting  for  seven 
days.  McClellan  stubbornly  re 
sisted  these  attacks  and  skilfully 
conducted  a  retreat,  at  the  same 
time  changing  his  base  from  the 
York  to  the  James  River.  Gradually  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  upon  which  the  Union  had  fixed  its  hopes,  was 
withdrawn  and  the  Peninsular  campaign  ended  in  failure. 

Among  the  important  battles  of  this  campaign  were  those  of 
Mechanicsville,  Seven  Pines  or  Fair  Oaks,  and  Malvern  Hill. 
General  Johnston,  who  was  wounded,  was  succeeded  by  General 
Robert  E.  Lee.  The  latter  had  been  an  officer  in  the  regular 
army  of  the  United  States  and  was  offered  the  command  of  the 
Union  troops  before  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter.  When  Virginia 
(his  native  State)  seceded,  he  reluctantly  resigned  his  commis 
sion  and  entered  the  Confederate  service. 

Financial         During  the  closing  months  of  Buchanan's  administra- 

iriTupport    tion,  the  Treasury  was  "practically  empty,  the  adminis- 

of  the  war.    trative  departments  disorganized,  customs  receipts  almost 

at  a  standstill,  the  debt  increasing,  and  the  Government's 

credit  ebbing  away."     Bonds  were  sold  as  low  as  $85  on 

the  $100.     When  Congress  met  in  special  session,  July, 


George  B.  McClellan 

Major-General,  1861-1862 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


387 


1861,  it  promptly  enacted  measures  to  meet  the  financial 
needs  of  the  nation:  (1)  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  was  authorized  to  borrow  $250,000,000 
on  bonds.  (2)  Tariff  rates  were  somewhat  increased. 
(3)  A  direct  tax  of  $20,000,000  was  levied  and  appor 
tioned  among  the  States  (Constitution,  Article  I,  section 
2,  clauseS).  (4)  A 
tax  on  incomes 
(three  per  cent,  on 
the  excess  over  $800) 
was  levied.  The 
machinery  for  the 
collection  of  the  new 
taxes  had  to  be  cre 
ated,  and  this  re 
quired  time.  Mean 
while  there  was  great 
uncertainty  as  to  the 
outcome  of  the  war 
and  the  attitude  of 
foreign  nations. 
Consequently  the  debt  increased  and  the  Nation's  credit 
declined. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  money  in  use  in  the  country 
was  (1)  United  States  coin,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
fractional  currency,  was  gold;  and  (2)  paper  money  issued  by 
some  fifteen  hundred  State  banks.  Several  thousand  varieties 
of  these  bank-notes  were  in  circulation,  a  great  many  of  which 
were  spurious.  The  value  of  any  particular  kind  depended 
upon  the  reputation  of  the  issuing  bank,  was  subject  to  fluctua 
tions,  and  varied  in  different  localities.  The  best  banks,  situ 
ated  in  the  financial  centres,  regularly  redeemed  their  notes  in 
gold.  The  situation  was  complicated  when,  in  1861,  Congress 
authorized  the  issuance  of  a  paper  currency  in  the  form  of 
" demand  notes,"  which  the  Government  undertook  to  redeem 
in  gold  on  demand. 

The  unstable  conditions  during  the  last  months  of  1861 
caused  the  public  to  lose  confidence  in  the  ability  or  willing 
ness  of  the  banks  and  the  Government  to  redeem  their 


McClellan's  Campaign  in  Virginia,  1862 


Paper 
money  of 
the  times. 


The  sus 
pension  of 
specie 
payments. 


388 


American  History 


The 

issuance  of 
United 
States 
Notes. 


Effects  of 
the  legal 
tender 
issues. 


Bonds  and 

internal 

taxes. 


paper  currency  in  specie.  Such  quantities  were  presented 
for  redemption  that  the  stocks  of  gold  in  reserve  were 
exhausted,  and  there  followed  the  "suspension  of  specie 
payments"  by  both  the  banks  and  the  Government. 
Henceforth,  until  1879,  the  Government  refused  to  redeem 
its  notes  in  gold. 

At  the  beginning  of  1862  the  Government  was  still  in 
need  of  revenue.  Congress  now  determined  upon  a  rad 
ical  measure — the  issuance  of  "United  States  Notes," 
which  were  merely  promises  to  pay,  without  stating  either 
the  form  or  time  of  payment.  In  order  to  insure  the  ac 
ceptance  of  these  notes  by  creditors,  they  were  made 
legal  tender.  Three  hundred  million  dollars  of  these  notes 
were  authorized  in  1862,  and  $150,000,000  in  1863.* 

The  effects  of  the  legal  tender  issues  were  marked:  (1)  The 
amount  issued  was  in  excess  of  commercial  needs  under  the  cir 
cumstances  and  they  consequently  depreciated.  Gold  was 
hoarded  or  exported  to  pay  foreign  debts.  Paper-money  prices 
rose  with  the  depreciation.  Higher  prices  stimulated  produc 
tion  and  encouraged  speculation.  (2)  Wages  and  salaries  rose 
less  rapidly  than  prices,  and  many  persons  living  upon  fixed 
incomes  suffered  severely.  (3)  When  debts  contracted  before 
the  issuance  of  the  "legal  tenders"  were  paid  in  these  notes,  the 
creditors  suffered  loss.  (4)  There  was  almost  daily  fluctuation 
of  the  notes  in  value,  depending  upon  the  state  of  public  con 
fidence  as  influenced  by  battles,  acts  of  Congress,  and  news 
from  Europe. 

The  fractional  silver  currency  also  disappeared  from  circula 
tion,  and  later  Congress  authorized  the  issuance  of  a  fractional 
paper  currency. 

In  1862,  the  expenditures  of  the  Government  were 
$2,000,000  a  day.  More  bonds  were  authorized,  $500,- 
000,000,  bearing  6  per  cent,  interest,  and  payable  in  from 
five  to  twenty  years.  A  wide-reaching  internal  revenue 
law  was  enacted  (July,  1862).  A  multitude  of  manu 
factured  articles  were  taxed;  license  fees  were  imposed 
upon  citizens  engaged  in  many  occupations;  corporations 

*  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  these  notes  and  their  constitutionality,  see 
Government  in  State  and  Nation,  212-214. 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


389 


were  taxed  upon  their  gross  receipts;  and  stamp  taxes 
were  imposed  upon  legal  documents  and  proprietary 
articles.  This  law,  says  Rhodes,  "might  be  briefly  de 
scribed  ...  as  an  act  which  taxed  everything." 

In  order  that  the  tax  burden  placed  upon  manufacturers 
should  not  place  them  at  a  disadvantage  in  competing 

with  foreign  pro 
ducers,  a  higher 
tariff  was  enacted. 
This  stimulated 
manufactures  and 
gave  employment  to 
workmen.  Business 
was  also  stimulated 
by  the  Govern 
ment's  great  de 
mand  for  war  ma 
terials.  Congress 
further  favored  in 
dustrial  conditions 
by  providing  for  the 
construction  of  a 
railroad  to  the  Pa 
cific  Ocean  (1862); 
by  a  homestead  act 

opening  great  tracts  of  land  for  settlement  free  of  charge 
(1862) ;  and  by  donations  of  land  made  to  the  States  from 
the  proceeds  of  which  agricultural  colleges  were  to  be 
established. 

After  the  Peninsular  campaign,  the  Union  army  in  the 
East  was  commanded  by  General  Pope;  to  this  was  added 
McClellan's  army,  soon  withdrawn  from  the  James  River. 
Pope  planned  an  attack  upon  Richmond  from  the  north, 
but  Lee,  assuming .  the  offensive,  outgeneralled  him  in 
Virginia,  and  the  Union  army  was  defeated  at  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run  (August,  1862).  Lee  then  determined 
upon  an  invasion  of  the  North.  He  hoped  (1)  to  gain 


Laws  in 
tended  to 
stimulate 
industries. 


Campaigns  in  the  East,  1862-1863 
Lee's  Invasions  of  the  North 


Pope's 
campaign 
in  Virginia 
and  Lee's 
invasion. 


390 


American  History 


The 

battle  of 
Antietam. 


The  Eman 
cipation 
Proclama 
tion. 


Policies 

previously 

pursued 

towards 

slavery. 


reinforcements  in  Maryland,  (2)  to  encourage  the  party 
in  the  North  opposed  to  the  war,  and  (3)  to  make  a  favor 
able  impression  upon  European  governments.  But  Lee 
was  repulsed  in  the  bloody  battle  at  Antietam  or  Sharps- 
burg,  Maryland  (September  17,  1862),  by  McClellan,  who 
had  been  restored  to  the  Union  command.  Lee's  army, 
however,  was  allowed  to  return  to  Virginia  unmolested. 

The  battle  of  Antietam  was  followed  by  the  issuance  of 
President  Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclamation  (Sep 
tember  22,  1862).  Written  some  two  months  previously, 
it  had  been  kept  secret,  within  the  councils  of  the  Cabinet, 
awaiting  a  Union  victory.  The  Proclamation  announced 
that  on  January  1,  1863,  the  President  would  declare  to 
be  free  all  slaves  held  within  the  regions  at  that  date  in 
arms  against  the  Union. 

It  was  the  culmination  of  a  long  series  of  events  occurring 
since  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  which  had  changed  Lincoln's 
views  regarding  his  policy  toward  slavery  (see  p.  373)  and  had 
developed  public  opinion  at  the  North  to  the  point  where  eman 
cipation  seemed  a  logical  step.  (1)  General  Butler,  commanding 
at  Fortress  Monroe,  had  declared  that  fugitive  slaves  appearing 
within  his  lines  were  "contraband  of  war"  (May,  1861),  and  he 
refused  to  return  them  to  their  owners.  The  Administration 
accepted  this  ingenious  solution  of  the  difficulty.  (2)  Congress 
passed  an  act  (August,  1861)  confiscating  slaves  employed  by  their 
masters  in  resistance  to  the  Government.  (3)  Next,  Congress 
forbade  officers  and  troops  to  assist  in  the  return  of  fugitive  slaves. 
(4)  Congress  adopted  (April,  1862)  Lincoln's  compensated  eman 
cipation  plan  whereby  if  any  State  would  free  its  slaves  the  Gov 
ernment  would  grant  financial  assistance  in  the  compensation  of 
masters.  No  State  availed  itself  of  this  offer.  (5)  Congress  next 
abolished  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia  (compensating  mas 
ters  to  the  extent  of  $1,000,000)  and  in  all  territories  of  the 
United  States.  (6)  Lincoln  had  annulled  orders  issued  by  Gen 
erals  Fremont  and  Hunter  declaring  free  the  slaves  of  persons  in 
insurrection;  he  feared  alienating  friends  of  the  Union  in  the 
border  States  and  increasing  opposition  to  the  war  in  the  North.* 
Congress  now  (July,  1862)  declared  all  such  slaves  confiscated. 

*  As  illustrating  Lincoln's  conservative  policy,  see  Horace  Greeley's 
Prayer  of  Twenty  Millions  and  Lincoln's  remarkable  letter  in  reply. 
Morse's  Lincoln,  II,  105-110.  Lamed,  Ready  Reference,  United  States, 
August,  1862. 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


391 


The  final  Emancipation  Proclamation  of  January  1,  Constitu- 
1863,  applied  to  all  the  seceding  States  except  Tennessee  and  Jj™'  j^r" 
certain  parts  of  Virginia  and  Louisiana,  which  were  then  section  2, 


Lincoln  found  the 


clause  1. 


under  the  control  of  Federal  troops. 

constitutional     authority 

for  his  act  in  his  power 

as    Commander-in-Chief 

of  the  army  and   navy. 

The  emancipation  of 

the  slaves  seemed  to 

him  a  direct  and  neces 

sary  means  for  preserv 

ing   the   Union.      In  the 

North  the  Proclamation 

aroused    greater    enthu 

siasm  for  the  support  of 

the  war.     Abroad,   its 

effect  was  to  render  im 

possible   the  moral  sup 

port  of  the  Confederacy 

by  the  masses  of  the 

people. 

The  year  1862,  with  its 

military  delays  and  failures,  brought  a  storm  of  criticism 
upon  Lincoln  and  his  administration:  — 

1.  The  President  was  accused  of  being  inefficient  and  lacking  criticisms 
in  vigor.  The  public  did  not  yet  understand  his  policy  of  of  Lincoln. 
awaiting  events,  instead  of  making  bold  announcements  of 
policy.  2.  He  was  accused  of  using  unconstitutional  and  des 
potic  powers  in  the  suspension  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in 
parts  of  the  country  distant  from  the  seat  of  war.  It  seemed 
necessary  to  arrest  and  hold  persons  who  were  merely  suspected 
of  plotting  against  the  Government.  (See  Government  in  State 
and  Nation,  244.)  Numbers  of  persons  were  arrested  who,  in 
public  speeches  and  in  newspapers,  were  opposing  the  prosecu 
tion  of  the  war,  discouraging  enlistment,  and  encouraging  deser 
tions.  In  the  view  of  Lincoln  they  were  giving  "aid  and  com 
fort"  to  the  enemy.  (Government  in  State  and  Nation,  312.) 
3.  Lincoln's  policy  toward  slavery  aroused  much  enmity,  both 


Gen.  Thos.  J.  Jackson 


392 


American  History 


from  the  Abolitionists  and  from  those  who  saw  no  evil  in  slavery. 
The  former  class  constituted  a  violent  and  harassing  element  in 
the  Republican  party. 

battle  of          McClellan,    instead    of    attacking,    watched    the    slow 
Fredericks-  retreat  of  Lee's  arm    after  the  battle  of  Antietam.    Finally, 


Chancel- 
lorsville. 


Lee's 


the  North, 


he  was  removed,  and  General  Burnside  was  appointed  in 
his  place.  The  latter  undertook  a  forward  movement 
against  the  Confederates  at  Fredericksburg,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Rappahannock  River.  A  mistaken  plan  of 
attack  and  a  vain  attempt  to  storm  well-defended  heights 
brought  disastrous  defeat  to  the  Union  army  (December 
13,  1862).  Once  more  incompetent  leadership  had  dis 
appointed  the  North.  "Grief,  as  great  as  any  told  in 
epic,  in  drama,  or  in  novel,  wrung  their  hearts  at  the 
useless  sacrifice  of  so  many  noble  souls."  In  this  battle 
nearly  13,000  men  were  either  killed  or  wounded.  Such 
was  "the  horror  of  Fredericksburg." 

Once  more  the  Union  army  was  demoralized  by  lack  of 
confidence  in  its  General,  and  Burnside  was  superseded 
by  General  Joseph  Hooker,  who  had  shown  good  fighting 
qualities  in  previous  Virginia  campaigns.  Lee  held  his 
army  in  Fredericksburg  during  the  winter  that  followed, 
and  it  was  May  before  Hooker  was  ready  to  begin  a  for 
ward  movement  toward  this  point.  Crossing  the  Rappa 
hannock  above  Fredericksburg,  his  army,  though  superior 
to  Lee's  in  numerical  strength,  met  disaster  on  the  battle 
field  of  Chancellorsville,  May  2-5,  1863. 

On  the  evening  of  the  first  day,  General  "  Stonewall "  Jackson, 
while  reconnoitering,  was  accidentally  fired  upon  by  his  own 
troops  and  fatally  wounded.  Thus  the  South  lost  this  remark 
able  commander;  they  might  better  have  lost  the  battle.  Gen 
eral  Jackson  displayed  such  genius  as  a  leader  and  inspired  his 
men  to  accomplish  such  victories  that  he  ranks  high  among  the 
world's  great  commanders. 

Lee  was  now  prepared  to  assume  the  offensive,  and  he 
again  entered  upon  an  invasion  of  the  North.  Crossing 
the  Potomac  with  75,000  troops  he  advanced  into  southern 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


393 


Pennsylvania,  hoping  to  reach  Harrisburg  and  perhaps  to 
threaten  Philadelphia.  One  part  of  his  army  reached  a 
point  within  four  miles  of  the  former  place  when  it  was 
recalled  to  join  the  main  force,  which  was  about  to  meet 

the  Union  army  at 

Vo 

Grettysburg.  (bee 
map,  389.)  The 
Union  army  was 
commanded  by 
Hooker's  successor, 
General  George 
Meade,  a  quiet,  busi 
ness-like  officer,  who 
could  be  depended 
upon.  The  first 
day's  fighting,  July 
1,  1863,  merely 
placed  the  opposing 
armies  in  their  final 
positions  along  the 
summits  of  two  op 
posing  ridges.  On 
the  second  day  the 
Confederates  at 
tacked  both  right 
and  left  wings  of  the 
Union  army  with 

great  energy;  but  they  were  unable  to  dislodge  them. 
There  remained  the  desperate  chance  of  an  attack  upon 
the  center,  and  July  3  witnessed  one  of  the  most  thrilling 
charges  in  military  history,  when  Pickett's  division  of  15,000 
Confederate  troops  advanced  against  the  Union  second 
corps,  which  was  commanded  by  General  Hancock.  Never 
was  a  brilliant  charge  more  sturdily  met,  the  Confederates 
being  completely  repulsed.  Lee  was  defeated,  and  he 
once  more  retreated  without  having  accomplished  his 
aim.  Cautious  General  Meade  would  not  risk  an  at- 


The 
battle  of 

Gettys- 

burg, 


Map  of  the  Battle  of  Gettysburg 


394 


American  History 


tack,   and  the  Southern  forces    reached   Virginia  soil  in 
safety. 

Lee  had  hoped  by  this  invasion  to  gain  a  decisive  battle, 
to  dictate  terms  to  the  Union  Government,  and  to  win 
recognition  of  the  Confederacy  by  foreign  powers.  His 
army  was  the  finest  the  Confederacy  ever  put  forth;  for 
its  losses  on  the  field 
of  Gettysburg  the 
Southern  people 
were  never  able  to 
compensate. 

In  the  West,  dur 
ing  the  last  months 


The 

campaign 

against 

Vicksburg,    of  1862,  Grant  and 

1863. 


Sherman  were  mak 
ing  unsuccessful  at 
tempts  to  capture 
Vicksburg.  That 
part  of  the  Missis 
sippi  River,  some 
two  hundred  miles, 
between  Vicksburg 
and  Port  Hudson, 
was  still  controlled 
by  the  Confederacy. 
This  enabled  them 
to  maintain  connec 
tions  with  the  States  west  of  the  river,  drawing  thence 
both  men  and  supplies — sugar,  grain,  and  beef — besides 
army  equipments  smuggled  in  from  Mexico.  To  sever  this 
connection  was  a  prime  object  of  the  war  in  the  West. 
Failing  to  make  any  progress  against  the  defences 
of  Vicksburg  from  the  north  and  east,  Grant  transferred 
his  troops  to  the  west  side  of  the  river,  and  marched 
them  to  a  point  twenty  miles  below  Vicksburg  (April, 
1863).  The  way  had  been  prepared  for  this  movement 
by  the  running  of  the  Vicksburg  batteries  situated  on  the 


The  Vicksburg  and  Chattanooga  Campaigns 


Secession  and  Civil  War 


395 


high  bluffs  overlooking  the  river,  by  vessels  of  Admiral  The  Siege 
Porter's  fleet.  Transports,  provisions,  and  gun-boats  were 
now  ready  for  Grant's  use  below  the  city.  Advancing 
northward,  he  captured  Jackson,  the  capital  of  Mississippi 
and  a  railroad  center,  and  drove  General  Pemberton's 
forces  into  Vicksburg.  He  prevented  reinforcements 
under  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston  from  joining  Pember- 
ton,  and  laid  siege  to  Vicksburg.  Week  after  week,  Grant 


Facsimile  of  a  Vicksburg  Newspaper  Printed  on  Wall  Paper 

drew  his  lines  more  closely  about  the  city,  whose  citizens 
were  driven  near  the  verge  of  starvation.  On  July  4, 
1863,  Pemberton  surrendered,  and  over  30,000  troops 
gave  up  their  arms.  A  few  days  later  Port  Hudson  sur 
rendered  to  General  Banks.  As  a  result  of  these  opera 
tions,  the  Confederacy  was  divided  and  weakened. 

It  was  now  less  than  two  years  since  the  first  pitched 
battle  of  the  war  had  been  fought.  In  that  short  period 
the  American  people,  both  North  and  South,  had  displayed 
marvellous  energy  in  the  raising  and  training  of  two  vast 
armies.  They  had  given  evidence  of  intense  loyalty  to  the 


396  American  History 

opposing  principles  that  caused  the  war.  They  had  put 
into  operation  with  facility,  and  at  great  cost,  all  the  gov 
ernmental  processes  that  were  calculated  to  support  a 
long  war.  During  the  greater  part  of  this  period,  the 
Union  armies  had  met  defeat  in  the  East,  though  they  were 
successful  in  the  West.  On  the  ocean  and  on  Western 
waters  the  Union  fleet  had  done  valiant  work.  After  the 
two  great  victories  at  Gettysburg  and  Vicksburg  closing 
this  period  of  the  war,  it  seemed  inevitable  that  the  North 
would  ultimately  prevail;  but  it  was  also  certain  that  the 
South  would  stubbornly  resist  until  men,  money,  and 
food  were  reduced  to  their  lowest  limits.  It  was  to  be  a 
test  of  endurance.  If  the  North  could  avoid  dissension, 
could  maintain  its  enthusiasm  and  determination,  the 
end  was  not  uncertain.  But  the  South  was  to  make  its 
opponent  pay  dearly  for  the  victory. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Lincoln's  first  inaugural.    Larned,  Ready  Reference,  United 
States,  1861,  March  4.     Burgess,  Civil  War  and  Constitution, 
I,  140-145.     Schouler,  VI,   3-7.     Abraham   Lincoln,   Am.   St. 
Series,  I,  226-232  (new  ed.),  219-228  (old  ed.). 

2.  Fort  Sumter.     Schouler,  VI,  15-18;    26-38.     Hart,  Con 
temporaries,  Nos.  70,  72.     Source  Book,  299-302.    Abraham 
Lincoln,  Am.  St.  Series,  1,243-257  (new  ed.),  241-257  (old  ed.). 

3.  Grant's  account  of  the  outbreak  of  the  war.     Memoirs,  I, 
183-193. 

4.  The  blockade.     Dodge,  Bird's-Eye  View  of  the  Civil  War, 
33-38.     Burgess,  I,  184-185;  266-270.     Schouler,  VI,  137-140; 
273-274;  575-578.     Seward,  Am.  St.  Series,  265-270  (new  ed.), 
288-291  (old  ed.).     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  116. 

5.  The  situation  in  Missouri  and  Kentucky.     Schouler,  VI, 
186-195. 

6.  The  battle  of  Bull  Run.     Schouler,  VI,  76-81.     Dodge. 
6-20.     Burgess,  I,  213-225.     Hart,  Contemporaries,   IV,    No. 
103.    Source  Book,  305-308. 

7.  Grant's  campaign  in  the  West,  1862.    Dodge,  25-32;  42-48. 
Burgess,  I,  281-289;    294-307.     Grant,  Memoirs,  I,  235-259. 


Secession  and  Civil  War  397 

8.  The  Trent  affair.    Burgess,  I,  270-275.    Schouler,  VI,  121- 
125.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No,  299  (Seward's  argument). 
Abraham  Lincoln,  Am.   St.  Series,  I,  380-387  (new  ed.),  380- 
387  (old  ed.).     C.  F.  Adams,  Am.  St.  Series,  chap.  12.     Seward, 
Am.  St.  Series,  chap.  18. 

9.  The  Monitor  and  Mcrrimac,     Dodge,  38-39.     Schouler, 
VI,  190-192.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  109. 

10.  The  Peninsular  campaign.     Dodge,  49-68.     Schouler,  VI, 
192-208.     Lincoln,  Am.  St.  Series,  II,  chap.  2.     Hart,  Con 
temporaries,  IV,  No.  112. 

11.  Gettysburg.     Dodge,  chaps.  25,  26.     Abraham  Lincoln, 
Am.  St.  Series,  II,  147-149  (new  ed.),  142-152  (old  ed.).    Burgess, 
II,  chap.  25.     Schouler,  VI,  350-369. 

12.  The  Vicksburg  campaign.     Burgess,  II,  chap.  24.     Dodge, 
chaps.  27-30.     Schouler,  VI,  375-398.      Hart,  Contemporaries, 
VI,  No.  119. 

13.  Interesting  accounts  of  war  scenes  and  incidents,  from  a 
Southern  view-point,  are    to  be  found  in  Eggleston,  A  Rebel's 
Recollections;  also,  Southern  Soldier  Stories. 

14.  Historical  fiction.     John  Fox,  Jr.,  The  Little  Shepherd  of 
Kingdom  Come.     Eggleston,  The  Master  of  Warlock.     Cable, 
The  Cavalier.     Crane,  The  Red  Badge  of  Courage.     Frederick, 
The  Copperhead;  and  other  stories  of  the  North. 

15.  Are  there  any  respects  in  which  the  Confederate  Con 
stitution  was  superior  to  that  of  the  United  States  ? 

16.  Mention  other  prominent  Southerners  besides  Stephens  who 
reluctantly  follo.wed  their  States  in  secession. 

17.  See  James  and  Mann,  Readings  on  American  History, 
chap.  XXIII. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


The 

strategic 
value  of 
Chatta 
nooga's 
position. 


Battles  of 
Chicka- 
mauga 
and  Chat 
tanooga, 
1863. 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  (Continued),  1863-1865 

CHATTANOOGA  was  the  most  important  strategic  point 
left  in  Confederate  hands  in  the  West.  (1)  It  was  the 
base  whose  possession  gave  control  of  the  valley  of  the 
upper  Tennessee  River.  From  this  sheltered  region  be 
tween  the  parallel  mountain  ranges  the  Confederate  army 
menaced  eastern  Tennessee  and  Kentucky;  their  raids 
through  the  easily  defended  mountain  gaps  extended  even 
to  Ohio  River  points.  (2)  This  valley  was  the  easy  route 
of  communication  between  the  West  and  Virginia;  relief 
expeditions  were  sent  in  either  direction  as  necessity  de 
manded.  (3)  Chattanooga  occupied  and  controlled  the 
mountain  gap  through  which  attack  might  be  made  from 
the  West  upon  the  Atlantic  States  of  the  South.* 

When  Rosecrans  assumed  the  offensive  against  Bragg 
(June,  1863)  he  skilfully  manreuvred  his  troops,  without 
bringing  on  a  battle,  so  that  the  Confederate  army  was 
obliged  to  abandon  Chattanooga.  Rosecrans  followed 
Bragg's  army  southward,  beyond  Chattanooga,  but  the 
latter  turned  and  attacked  the  Federal  army  at  Chicka- 
mauga  (September  19-20,  1863).  This  came  near  being 
a  disaster;  but  General  Thomas,  commanding  the  Union 
left,  held  his  position  against  great  odds.  The  Union  army 
retired  to  a  position  near  Chattanooga,  where  it  was  be 
sieged.  General  Grant  was  now  put  in  charge  of  the 
campaign,  with  Thomas  in  immediate  command  at  Chat 
tanooga.  Reinforcements  arrived  under  Sherman^  from 
the  Mississippi  and  under  Hooker  from  the  Potomac. 

398 


The  Civil  War  390 

The  Union  army  now  attacked  Bragg,  who  occupied  the 
heights  of  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge. 
"One  of  the  most  spectacular  encounters  the  world  ever 
saw  lasted  over  three  days  [November  23,  24,  25]  on 
these  heights  surrounding  Chattanooga,  with  thrilling  and 
impressive  incidents."  The  Union  victory  was  complete, 
and,  except  for  minor  operations,  the  West  ceased  to  be  a 
battle-ground. 

On  its  political  side,  the  Government,  in  1863,  entered  The  draft. 
upon  two  new  lines  of  policy.  (1)  A  conscription,  or  draft, 
act  was  passed  by  Congress  in  March.  Hitherto  the  army 
had  been  sustained  by  volunteer  recruits.  Under  its 
power  "to  raise  and  support  armies"  Congress  had  as 
signed  to  each  State  its  quota.  Now,  the  militia  were  to 
be  called  out  "to  suppress  insurrection."  All  able-bodied 
men  between  the  ages  of  20  and  45  (with  certain  exemp 
tions)  were  enrolled  by  Federal  officers.  If  the  quota  of 
any  State  was  not  supplied  by  volunteers  the  deficiency  Constitu 
was  made  up  by  the  drawing  of  names  from  a  box,  as  in  tion,  Ar- 
a  lottery.  Any  person  not  responding  to  this  call  was  section  8, 
treated  as  a  deserter;  but  exemption  from  the  draft  might  clauses  12 
be  secured  by  the  payment  of  $500  (a  provision  afterward 
repealed),  or  by  furnishing  a  substitute.  Later,  a  bounty 
of  $300  was  granted  to  each  volunteer,  in  addition  to  the 
regular  pay  of  a  private  soldier  (originally  $13,  later 
made  $16  per  month);  and  to  this  amount  State  and 
even  local  governments  added  bounties  on  their  own  ac 
count.  When  the  draft  was  put  into  force,  in  the  summer 
of  1863,  it  met  serious  resistance  in  New  York  city,  where 
there  was  a  riot,  in  the  suppression  of  which  many  per 
sons  were  killed  and  wounded.  Several  draft  orders  were 
issued  in  1864;  comparatively  few  troops  were  raised  in 
this  way,  however,  because  of  the  remarkable  willingness 
of  men  to  volunteer. 

(2)  At  the  beginning  of  1863,  taxation  was  bringing  in 
a  very  inadequate  revenue,  the  legal  tenders  were  de 
preciating,  and  bond  sales  were  very  slow.  The  expenses 


400 


American  History 


The 

National 
Banking 
Act,  1863. 


of  the  Government  averaged  $2,500,000  a  day,  while  the 
receipts  were  about  $600,000  a  day.  A  serious  deficit 
existed,'  amounting  to  $277,000,000  in  December,  1862. 
At  this  juncture  Congress  enacted  the  greatest  financial 
measure  of  the  war 
— the  National 
Banking  act.  It  pro 
vided  that  banking 
associations  might 
purchase  National 
bonds,  deposit  them 
in  the  Treasury  at 
Washington,  and  receive  in 
return  "National  bank 
notes"  to  the  extent  of  90 
per  cent,  of  the  par  value 
(but  not  more  than  90  per 
cent,  of  the  market  value) 
of  the  bonds.*  Thus  an  in 
ducement  was  offered  for  the 
purchase  of  bonds;  for  the 
bank  would  receive  interest  on 
its  bonds  in  addition  to  in 
terest  upon  the  National  bank 
notes  which  it  loaned  in  the  course 
of  its  business.  A  tax  of  10  per 
cent,  was  later  placed  upon  the 
notes  of  all  State  banks  (see  p. 
387),  and  these  were  driven  from 
circulation.  The  National  Ba,nk 
Act  attained  two  great  objects:  it 

secured  a  market  for  National  bonds;  and  it  provided  the 
country  with  a  uniform  and  safe  currency. 

New  legislation,  enacted  in  the  summer  of  1864,  in 
creased  the  various  taxes  already  imposed  (see  pp.  387, 
388-9.)  at  almost  every  point.  Tariff  duties  were  raised 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  217-219. 


Fractional  Currency  of  the 
Civil  War  Period 


The  Civil  War  401 

from  37  per  cent.,  on  the  average,  to  47  per  cent,  of  the 
value  of  imported  goods. 

Animosity  toward  the  United  States  and  friendship  for  The  atti- 
the  Confederacy  were  plainly  displayed  in  England  by  ^fgland 
the  aristocracy,  by  the  majority  of  the  commercial  and 
moneyed  classes,  and  by  newspapers. 

For  this  there  were  several  reasons:  (1)  The  classes  mentioned 
were  prejudiced  against  the  people  of  the  North,  whom  they 
regarded  as  crude  and  boastful.  (2)  There  was  a  dislike  for 
republican  institutions,  whose  insecurity  was  now  to  be  dem 
onstrated  by  the  success  of  the  South.  (3)  Commercially,  the 
interests  of  the  English  seemed  to  be  bound  more  closely  to  the 
South,  from  whom  they  must  have  cotton;  besides,  the  exclu 
sive  protective  tariff  policy  of  the  United  States  was  contrasted 
with  the  free-trade  policy  of  the  Confederacy. 

Napoleon  III  of  France  was  ready  at  any  time  to  The  ques- 
recognize  the  independence  of  the  Confederate  Govern-  JJJJJJ  ^f. 
ment.  The  Russian  Government,  however,  refused  to  tion. 
accede  to  the  French  desire  for  joint  action  among  the 
powers  in  that  direction.  The  English  Cabinet,  hesitat 
ing  for  many  months,  was  divided  upon  this  question 
(though  a  majority  of  Parliament  favored  recognition), 
and  consequently  a  waiting  policy  was  adopted.  As  the 
struggle  progressed,  and  especially  after  the  issuance  of 
the  Emancipation  Proclamation,  public  sentiment  in 
England  became  aroused.  Richard  Cobden  and  John 
Bright  spoke  strongly  for  the  Northern  cause.  The  mid 
dle  and  laboring  classes  showed  plainly  that  upon  the 
question  of  slave  labor  versus  free  labor  they  stood  for  the 
cause  of  the  North.  This  fact  was  the  more  remarkable 
because  the  curtailment  of  the  cotton  supply  threw  out  of 
employment  hundreds  of  thousands  of  mill  employees  and 
reduced  them  temporarily  to  extreme  want. 

In  its  relations  to  the  American  war  the  English  Government 
violated  the  plainest  rules  concerning  the  duties  of  neutrals. 

Among  these  rules  is  this:  that  a  neutral  power  is  bound  to 
use  due  diligence  to  prevent  the  fitting  out,  arming,  or  equipping, 
within  its  jurisdiction,  or  the  departure  from  its  ports,  of  any 


402 


American  History 


built  in 
England 


Confeder-  vessel  which  it  has  reasonable  grounds  to  believe  is  intended  to 
atecrmsers  carry  on  war  against  one  of  the  belligerents.  In  spite  of  the 
well-known  intentions  of  Confederate  agents  in  securing  the 
construction  of  vessels  in  English  shipyards,  the  Government 
refused  to  prevent  it.  Among  the  vessels  allowed  to  depart 
from  England  under  these  circumstances,  the  most  famous  was 
the  Alabama  (July,  1862).  For  nearly  two  years  this  and  other 
Confederate  cruisers  seized  and  destroyed  American  vessels,  and 
thus  inflicted  upon  our  merchant  marine  a  blow  from  which  it 
has  never  recovered.*  The  career  of  the  Alabama  came  to  an 
end,  June  19,  1864,  in  a  battle  with  the  Kearsarge,  commanded 
by  Captain  Winslow,  near  Cherbourg,  France.  The  Confederate 
vessel  was  defeated  and  sunk  within  an  hour's  time. 

The  Confederate  agents  also  secured  the  construction  in  Eng 
land  of  two  formidable  iron-clad  rams,  against  which  the  vessels 
of  the  United  States  navy  would  have  been  helpless.  The 
skilf  ull  diplomacy  and  repeated  protests  of  our  minister  in  Eng 
land,  Charles  Francis  Adams,  had  hitherto  been  unavailing,  but 
now,  realizing  the  crisis  of  the  moment,  he  wrote  to  Earl  Russell, 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  "It  would  be  superfluous  in  me 
to  point  out  to  your  lordship  that  this  is  war"  (September,  1863). 
The  Cabinet  policy  was  reversed,  the  rains  were  detained,  and 
afterward  they  were  purchased  by  the  British  Government. 


General 
Grant 
placed  in 


After  Grant's  successes  in  the  West,  the  country  looked 
to  him  as  its  champion.  Congress  passed  (February, 
command.  1864)  an  act  reviving  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-General,f 
and  Lincoln  promptly  appointed  Grant  to  this  exalted 
position.  Grant's  military  genius  shone  through  a  very 
plain  exterior.  Sherman  characterized  him  as  "simple, 
honest,  and  unpretending."  He  was  taciturn,  but  was  a 
hard  worker  and  a  deep  thinker  in  the  formation  and 
execution  of  his  military  plans.  Grant  was  aggressive  and 
tenacious.  Always  cool  in  the  midst  of  the  most  exciting 
events,  his  "simple  faith  in  success"  inspired  officers  and 
men  with  the  greatest  confidence. 

*  Two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  vessels  were  captured  and  715  were 
transferred  to  the  flags  of  other  nations  in  order  to  avoid  capture.  The 
captures  of  the  Alabama  numbered  sixty-eight.  Hosmer,  The  Outcome 
of  the  Civil  War,  174. 

t  This  had  been  enjoyed  only  by  Washington,  and,  by  brevet,  by 
Scott. 


The  Civil  War 


403 


N  O 


N    A 


Grant's  Campaign,  1864-1865 


Grant  had  won  his  victories  in  the  West  by  striking  The 
hard  blows;  he  now  proposed  to  use  this  method  against  ^The 
Lee's  army — to  wear  it  away,  if  nothing  else,  by  mere  East, 
attrition.  At  the  same  time,  General  Butler  was  to  move 
against  Richmond 
by  the  James  River, 
and  General  Franz 
Sigel  was  to  confront 
the  enemy  in  the 
Shenandoah  valley. 
On  May  4,  1864, 
Grant's  army,  num 
bering  about  120,000 
troops,  crossed  the 
Rapidan  and  entered 
that  densely  wooded 
region  known  as  the 
Wilderness.  The 
fierce  conflict  that 
raged  for  two  days  demonstrated  Grant's  failure  to 
force  an  advance.  Undismayed,  and  unwilling  to  yield 
ground,  he  made  a  movement  by  the  left  flank  to  the  east 
ward,  hoping  to  outflank  Lee  and  to  place  his  army  between 
the  enemy  and  Richmond.  But  his  troops  in  their  new 
position  at  Spottsylvania  were  again  confronted  by  Lee's 
army,  and  again  failed  to  make  a  forward  movement. 

In    this,    as    in    succeeding    movements    of    Grant's  Grant's 
army  by  the  left  flank,  Lee  possessed  the  advantage  of  tow'ards 
operating  upon  interior  lines,  and  his  great  military  skill   Richmond, 
enabled  him  to  confront  Grant  at  every  point  on  ground 
well  suited  for  defence.     In  eight  days  of  almost  continuous 
fighting  36,000  Union  soldiers  had  fallen,  either  killed  or 
wounded.     When    Grant's    army,    again    moving    south 
eastward,  confronted  Lee  at  Gold  Harbor  and  charged  his 
breastworks,  fearful  slaughter  resulted,  7,000  men  falling 
in  one  hour.     But  Lee's  army  and  Richmond  were  still 
uncaptured.     Grant  now  made  an  effective  movement  in 


404 


American  History 


Results  of 
the  sum 
mer's 
campaign. 


Sherman's 
campaign 
in  the 
West, 
1864. 


the  transportation  of  his  army  south  of  the  James  River. 
Here  an  attempt  to  capture  Petersburg  failed  with  great 
loss.  Nothing  remained  but  to  lay  siege  to  Petersburg  and 
Richmond. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  Shenandoah  valley,  there  was  a 
repetition  of  Lee's  former  raids  into  the  North.  General 
Jubal  Early's  troops  entered  sev 
eral  Maryland  towns  and  exacted 
tribute.  They  even  penetrated  to 
the  outer  defences  of  Washington, 
north-west  of  the  city,  within  sight 
of  the  dome  of  the  capitol. 

It  is  difficult  to  realize  the  gloom 
that  now  settled  upon  the  North 
ern  people  as  they  looked  back 
upon  another  campaign  of  failure 
and  loss.  Lee's  army  had  not  been 
conquered,  and  the  enemy  had 
again  been  at  the  gates  of  Wash 
ington.  There  had  been  an  awful 
loss  of  skilled  officers  and  veteran  troops  (about  60,000), 
and  their  places  could  not  be  adequately  taken  by  the 
inexperienced  troops  now  sent  forward. 

Starting  from  Chattanooga  with  100,000  troops  at  the 
same  time  (May,  1864)  that  Grant  crossed  the  Rapidan, 
General  Sherman  moved  south-east  ward  ly  against  the 
Confederate  army  under  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston. 
The  destruction  of  this  army  was  one  of  Sherman's  ob 
jects;  another  purpose  was  the  invasion  of  Southern 
territory  in  order  to  destroy  sources  of  military  supplies, 
and  thus  to  bring  home  to  the  people  the  conviction  that 
ultimately  they  would  be  conquered.  Like  Grant,  Sher 
man  was  aggressive  in  policy;  his  peculiar  genius  was 
shown  in  the  rapid  and  original  manoeuvres  of  his  army. 
Displaying  the  same  plain  and  honest  traits  as  his  great 
commander,  Sherman  won  in  a  peculiar  way  the  love  of 
his  soldiers. 


Ulysses  Simpson  Grant 
General.  1864-1869 


The  Civil  War  405 

Johnston  retreated  from  one  stronghold  to  another, 
Dalton,  Resaca,  Kingston,  and  Cassville  in  succession 
being  abandoned.  He  was  defeated  in  a  strong  position 
at  Kenesaw  Mountain,  and  the  army  of  Sherman  marched 
forward  to  capture  Atlanta.  (See  map,  p.  409.) 

The  political  campaign  of  1864  revealed  several  sources  The  Presi- 
of  popular  discontent  with  Lincoln's  administration  (see  campaign 
p.  391).     Secretary  Chase,  whose  peculiar  temperament  of  1864. 
had  prevented  his  entering  into  sincerely  cordial  relations 
with  Lincoln,  allowed  his  name  to  be  used  (by  the  radical 
anti-slavery  faction)   as  a  prospective  candidate  for  the 
Republican  nomination.     Chase  soon  saw  his  mistake  and 
withdrew  his  name.     This  faction  continued  in  opposi 
tion,   however,   and  finally   held  a  convention  at  Cleve-  The 
land,   where  Lincoln    was    denounced   as   a   usurper   of  J^^- 
power   without  capacity  for  the  Presidency.     His  admin-  tion. 
istration  was   declared  to   be  politically,   militarily,  'and 
financially  a  failure.     General  Fremont  was  nominated 
as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency;    but  when  it  became 
evident  that  popular  support  would  be  lacking,  he  with 
drew. 

The  friends  of  Lincoln's  administration  held  a  conven-  The  Re- 
tion  at  Baltimore,  in  June,  and  nominated  him  with  great  JJomina- 
enthusiasm.     Their  party  was  styled  the  "Union  Repub-  tions. 
lican  Party,"  for  it  included  many  Democrats  who  favored 
the  war  policy. 

The  candidate  for  Vice-President  was  Andrew  Johnson,   of    Andrew 
Tennessee.     His  nomination  was  a  stroke  of  policy  intended  to    ^olinson' 
win  the  votes  of  Democrats  and  of  loyal  men  in  the  border  States. 
Johnson  was  a  war  Democrat,   and  he  had  performed  many 
valuable  services  for  the  Union  cause  in  his  capacity  as  military 
governor  of  Tennessee. 

The  most  serious  opposition  to  the  reelection  of  Lincoln  The  pem- 
came  from  the  regular  Democratic  organization.     This  party,0 
included  two  elements:   (1)  the  "Copperheads,"  who  were  ,Pjfdtf°ar™' 
utterly  opposed  to  the  military  coercion  of  the  South  and  didate. 
desired  peace  at  any  price;   (2)  those  who  believed  that  the 


406  American  History 

war  could  be  pushed  to  a  more  speedy  termination  by  a 
more  efficient  President.  Both  elements  condemned  Mr. 
Lincoln's  apparent  determination  to  bring  about  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  The  former  element  controlled  the 
convention  (at  Chicago,  August,  1864)  sufficiently  to  have 
included  in  the  platform  a  clause  declaring  that  "after 
four  years  of  failure  to  restore  the  Union  by  the  experi 
ment  of  war  .  .  .  justice,  humanity,  and  liberty  and  the 
public  welfare  demand  that  immediate  efforts  be  made 
for  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  with  a  view  to  an  ultimate 
convention  of  the  States,  or  other  peaceable  means,  to  the 
end  that  at  the  earliest  practicable  moment  peace  may  be 
restored  on  the  basis  of  the  Federal  Union  of  the  States." 
Whatever  specific  policy  this  rather  vague  declaration 
pointed  to,  the  candidate  nominated,  General  McClellan, 
promptly  repudiated  the  section  just  quoted.  He  placed 
himself,  with  the  conservative  Democrats,  squarely  upon 
the  demand  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  saying,  "The 
Union  must  be  preserved  at  all  hazards." 

A  sue-  Opposition    to    Lincoln's    administration    during    the 

oTmiiitar  summer  °f  1864  was  most  serious.*  The  war  had  now 
successes,  dragged  on  for  more  than  three  years;  there  was  among 
the  people  a  feeling  of  excessive  weariness  of  its  awful 
burdens  in  taxation  and  the  loss  of  human  life.  But  all 
this  was  changed  when  the  military  situation  improved. 
(1)  On  August  5,  Admiral  Farragut  made  a  bold  attack 
with  his  fleet  upon  the  forts  that  guarded  the  entrance  to 
Mobile  harbor.  Later  in  the  month  the  forts  were  capt 
ured,  and  thus  another  step  was  taken  in  the  execution  of 
the  blockade  policy  that  was  so  effectually  throttling  the 
trade  of  the  Confederacy.  (2)  After  many  weeks  of 
strenuous  work,  Sherman  captured  Atlanta  in  September. 
This  city  had  been  a  center  for  the  manufacture  of  Con- 

*  Lincoln  himself  doubted  his  reelection.  See  Century  Magazine, 
August,  1907  (Vol.  LXXIV,  pp.  612-622).  This  entire  series  of  articles 
(Lincoln  in  the  Telegraph  Office)  gives  an  intimate  view  of  Lincoln  dur 
ing  the  war. 


The  Civil  War 


407 


federate  arms,  ammunition,  and  supplies.  (3)  General  Philip 
Sheridan  won  a  series  of  victories  over  General  Early  in 
the  Shenandoah  valley;  the  most  important  were  at  Win 
chester  and  Fisher's  Hill  in  September,  and  at  Cedar  Creek, 
October  19.*  (See  map,  p.  377.)  Subsequently,  Sheridan's 
army  devastated  the  Shenandoah 
valley,  destroying  not  only  crops 
and  provisions,  but  also  all  means 
of  further  production.  Henceforth, 
this  source  of  supplies  for  Lee's 
army  was  cut  off,  and  no  more  raids 
into  Northern  territory  by  way  of 
this  valley  were  possible. 

The  election  in  November 
showed  the  stimulating  effects  of 
victory;  for  Lincoln  carried  all  the 
States  participating,  except  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Kentucky. 
He  received  212  electoral  votes, 
while  McClellan  had  but  21 .  Yet 

the  popular  vote  shows  more  fairly  the  division  among 
the  people:  Lincoln,  2,330,000;  McClellan,  1,835,000. 
Commenting  upon  the  election,  Lincoln  said :  "It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  a  people's  government  can  sustain  a 
National  election  in  the  midst  of  a  great  civil  war.  Until 
now  it  has  not  been  known  to  the  world  that  this  was  a 
possibility.''! 

Sherman  was  anxious  to  cooperate  with  Grant  against 
Richmond,  and  for  accomplishing  this  he  had  an  origi 
nal  plan.  His  army  would  first  march  directly  from 
Atlanta  to  Savannah,  and  there  establish  new  connections 
with  the  north,  by  water;  this  would  be  followed  by  a 


The  result 
of  the 
election, 
November, 
1864. 


Philip  H.  Sheridan 

Lieutenant-General,  r883-1888 


Sherman's 
march 
from 
Atlanta 
to  the  sea. 


*  T.  Buchanan  Reid's  poem,  Sheridan's  Ride,  and  especially  its  recital 
at  Cincinnati  by  a  famous  reader,  Murdoch,  aroused  great  enthusiasm 
and  produced  no  little  political  effect. 

t  See  Morse's  Abraham  Lincoln,  II,  293-295,  for  the  speech  of  which 
this  is  an  extract, 


408 


American  History 


The  defeat 
of  Hood 
and  Sher 
man's  ad 
vance. 


march  north  to  Richmond.  Receiving  the  consent  of 
Lincoln  and  Grant  for  his  plan,  Sherman  abandoned  his 
base  and  northern  connections  at  Atlanta  (November  12, 
1864),  and  advanced  through  Georgia  with  an  army  of 
60,000  veterans  marching  in  three  columns.  No  resist 
ance  was  met.  Railroads,  facto 
ries,  and  other  means  for  aiding 
the  Confederacy  were  ruthlessly 
destroyed;  food  and  forage  for 
Sherman's  army  were  gathered 
from  near  and  far;  but,  beyond 
this,  the  needless  destruction  of 
private  property  was  prohibited 
and,  in  the  main,  was  prevented. 

Says  Dodge  (Bird's-Eye  View  of 
the  Civil  War,  290),  "  No  army  ever 
enjoyed  such  freedom  and  kept  with 
in  such  bounds."  From  Sherman's 
Official  Report  we  learn:  "We  con 
sumed  corn  and  fodder  in  the  region 

of  country  thirty  miles  on  either  side  of  the  line  from  Atlanta  to 
Savannah;  also  the  sweet  potatoes,  hops,  sheep,  and  poultry, 
and  carried  off  more  than  ten"  thousand  mules  and  horses.  I 
estimate  the  damage  done  to  the  State  of  Georgia  at  $100,000,- 
000,  at  least  $10,000,000  of  which  inured  to  our  benefit  and  the 
remainder  was  simply  waste  and  destruction." 

By  December  10,  Sherman's  army  arrived  before  the 
defences  of  Savannah,  and  a  few  days  before  Christmas  the 
city  was  captured;  great  stores  of  arms  and  ammunition 
and  25,000  bales  of  cotton  were  the  prize  secured. 

In  the  meantime,  General  Hood  had  attacked  Sher 
man's  line  of  communications  between  Atlanta  and  Chat 
tanooga,  hoping  to  draw  him  back  to  their  defence.  Gen 
eral  Thomas,  who  was  put  in  command  of  the  Union  army 
in  eastern  Tennessee,  met  Hood's  assaults  successfully. 
Finally,  he  attacked  the  Southern  army  at  Nashville 
(December  15-16),  and  completely  defeated  it.  Hood's 
army  never  reassembled ;  many  of  his  soldiers  returned  to 


William  Tecumseh  Sherman 

General,  1869-1883 


The  Civil  War 


409 


their  homes,  while  others  joined  the  army  under  Johnston 
now  gathering  in  the  Carolinas  to  oppose  Sherman's 
northward  march.  When  the  latter  set  out  from  Savan 
nah,  the  rivers  were  swollen  and  the  roads  were  almost 
impassable.  Columbia,  S.  C.  was  reached  February  17, 
Goldsboro,  N.  C.,  March  23,  and  Raleigh,  April  2. 


Lincoln's 
second 


Lincoln  was  inaugurated  for  the  second  time,  March  4,  1865 
In  his  second  inaugural  the  great  President  displayed  no  vin-   ^augural 
dictive  feeling.     "  Fondly  do  we  hope — fervently  do  we  pray — 
that  this  great  scourge  of  war  may  speedily  pass  away.     Yet,  if 


Map  Illustrating  Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea 

God  wills  that  it  continue  until  all  the  wealth  piled  up  by  the 
bondman's  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  unrequited  toil  shall 
be  sunk,  and  until  every  drop  of  blood  drawn  with  the  lash  shall 
be  paid  with  another  drawn  with  the  sword,  as  was  said  three 
thousand  years  ago,  so  still  it  must  be  said,  '  The  judgments  of  the 
Lord  are  true  and  righteous  altogether.'  With  malice  toward 
none;  with  charity  for  all;  with  firmness  in  the  right,  as  God  gives 
us  to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive  on  to  finish  the  work  we  are  in; 
to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds;  to  care  for  him  who  shall  have 
borne  the  battle,  and  for  his  widow,  and  his  orphan — to  do  all 
which  may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  lasting  peace  among 
ourselves,  and  with  all  nations." 


410 


American  History 


Final 
operatioi 

Richmond, 


The 


ment. 


Grant,  besieging  Petersburg  and  Richmond  since  June, 
Sherman's  arrival  from  the  South 
to  push  his  army  to  victory.  On  April  1,  1865,  a  success 
ful  attack  was  made  by  troops  under  Sheridan  against  the 

Confederate  forces  at  Five 
Forks.  See  map,  p.  403. 
The  next  day  the  inner 
works  of  Petersburg  were 
carried.  That  night 
(April  2-3)  Lee's  army 
quietly  withdrew  along 
the  only  avenue  of  es 
cape  left  open  to  the  west 
ward.  Grant's  troops  oc 
cupied  Richmond  and 
immediately  took  up  the 
pursuit.  Lee's  supplies 
failed  him,  and,  finally, 
on  April  9,  at  Appomat- 
tox  Court  House,  he 
found  that  Sheridan  had 
planted  troops  squarely 

across  his  path.  Refusing  to  cause  needless  bloodshed,  Lee 
asked  for  an  interview  with  Grant,  and  terms  of  surrender 
were  at  once  arranged.  These  were  most  generous:  the 
entire  force  surrendered  were  released  on  parole;  the  officers 
retained  their  sidearms,  horses,  and  baggage;  and  the 
privates  who  owned  horses  were  allowed  to  take  them 
home  in  order  that  they  might  at  once  begin  the  spring 
farm  work. 

General  Johnston  surrendered  to  Sherman  on  April  26, 
and  thus  two  great  armies  went  at  once  from  the  field  to 
the  peaceful  pursuits  of  life. 

The  complete  abolition  of  slavery,  as  a  logical  conse 
quence  of  the  war,  was  provided  for  by  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  proposed  by  Congress  in 
January,  1865.  This  amendment  was  ratified  by  three- 


General  Robert  E.  Lee,  C.  S.  A. 


The  Civil  War  411 

fourths  of  the  States  and  was  declared  in  force  December 
18,  1865.* 

The  great  joy  over  the  close  of  the  war  was  almost  im-  The  great 
mediately  turned  to  grief  over  the  assassination  of  Presi-  f^1 
dent  Lincoln.  This  occurred  on  the  evening  of  April  14, 
when  John  Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor,  shot  the  President  as 
he  sat  in  his  box  at  Ford's  Theatre  in  Washington. f  Now, 
as  never  before,  the  people  saw  the  worth  of  the  simple, 
honest  man  who  had  guided  the  Nation  through  these 
perilous  years.  No  other  man  in  all  our  history  has  come 
so  near  to  the  hearts  of  the  common  people.  Rising  from 
their  midst,  he  embodied  not  only  the  true  American  ' 
democratic  spirit,  but  all  the  homely  virtues  that  called 
forth  the  lasting  admiration  of  the  masses.  He  was  shrewd, 
far-seeing,  and  kindly — "thinking  no  evil."  Completely 
master  of  himself,  he  held  to  his  convictions  with  an  iron 
grip.  He  showed  the  highest  skill  in  dealing  with  his  ene 
mies,  in  winning  opponents  to  his  side,  and  in  interpreting 
the  half -expressed  will  of  the  people.  We  may  not  hesitate 
to  repeat  the  high  eulogy  of  his  contemporary,  Stanton, 
who  called  Lincoln  "the  most  perfect  ruler  of  men  the  world 
has  ever  seen."  How  much  the  disunited  country  needed 
his  skilful  service  in  healing  the  dissensions  of  the  years  that 
now  followed  will  be  seen  in  succeeding  chapters. 

The  defeat  of  the  Confederacy  was  not  due  to  lack  of  why  the 
fighting  qualities  in  her  generals  and  soldiers,  or  of  devo-  defeated*8 
tion  in  her  people.J     (1)  First  among  the  causes  of  defeat 

*  Before  this  time  slavery  had  been  abolished  by  Missouri,  Maryland,  Ten 
nessee,  and  West  Virginia,  States  unaffected  by  the  Emancipation  Procla 
mation  ;  and  by  Virginia  and  Louisiana,  parts  of  which  were  excepted  by  the 
Proclamation.  Of  the  original  slave  States,  therefore,  Delaware  and  Ken 
tucky  alone  retained  slavery  when  the  amendment  went  into  force. 

t  A  valuable  account  of  this  event  by  one  of  Lincoln's  body-guard  is 
found  in  Harper's  Magazine,  September,  1907  (Vol.  CXVIII,  pp.  519-530). 
The  series,  of  which  this  article  is  one,  is  of  great  interest. 

t  "The  devotion  of  the  Southerners  was,  in  fact,  immeasurable;  the 
economic  agree  with  the  military  historians  that  their  sacrifices  were  far 
greater  than  any  the  Revolutionary  patriots  made.  In  the  day  of  extreme 
need,  the  women  offered  the  hair  of  their  heads  to  be  sold  abroad  for 
arms."  Brown,  The  Lower  South,  167. 


412  . 


American  History 


(1)  Lack  of 
soldiers. 


(2)  Lack  of 
resources. 


(3)  The 
failure  of 
taxation 
as  a  basis 
for  bonds 
and  paper 
money. 


The  results 
of  the  war. 


was  the  disparity  in  population.  While  volunteering 
was  as  general  there  as  in  the  North,  it  became  neces 
sary  early  (April,  1862)  to  resort  to  conscription;  the 
draft  laws  finally  included  all  males  between  the  ages  of 
16  and  60.  While  less  than  one-half  the  military  popula 
tion  of  the  North  entered  the  army,  the  proportion  in  the 
South  was  nine-tenths.  (2)  The  resources  of  the  South 
proved  inadequate.  The  curse  of  slavery  was  upon  the 
land;  here  lay  the  secret  of  the  Confederacy's  lack  in 
skilled  mechanics,  factories,  mines,  and  railroads.  The 
blockade  cut  off  imports  which  she  could  not  produce; 
(3)  The  fundamental  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  Con 
federacy's  finances  lay  in  the  lack  of  resources  that  could 
be  taxed;  for  the  ability  of  a  people  to  pay  taxes  depends 
upon  the  productivity  of  their  industries.  While  at  the 
North  business  thrived  and  millions  of  fresh  acres  were 
turned  into  farms,  at  the  South  the  withdrawal  of  men 
paralyzed  industry.  Moreover,  the  blockade  cut  off  the 
great  source  of  income — cotton  exportation.  The  taxa 
tion  of  commerce  by  import  and  export  duties  also  became 
impossible.  In  its  extremity,  the  Confederate  Govern 
ment  seized  supplies,  paying  for  them  at  fixed  rates.  But 
the  Government  relied  chiefly  for  financial  support  upon 
bond  issues  and  paper  money.  The  bonds  became  next 
to  worthless  before  the  end  of  the  war.  Paper  money  was 
issued  (both  by  States  and  by  the  Confederacy)  in  enor 
mous  quantities,  and  it  depreciated  almost  from  the 
beginning.* 

The  Civil  War  was  fought  by  the  North  for  the  mainten 
ance  of  an  ideal — that  union  of  States  and  of  people  which 
aroused  the  patriotic  spirits  of  the  loyal  citizens.  The  doc- 

*  "In  1863,  flour  was  worth  from  $90  to  $100  a  barrel  in  Mississippi, 
and  salt  $30  a  bushel.  The  following  year  boots  sold  for  $200  a  pair 
and  coats  for  $350  each.  The  price  of  coffee  was  $5  and  of  sugar  was 
$2  a  pound." — Garner,  Reconstruction  in  Mississippi,  50.  The  Confed 
erate  Government  virtually  repudiated  large  amounts  of  the  paper 
money  by  compelling  the  people  to  take  in  exchange  for  it  Confederate 
bonds.  Neither  the  money  nor  the  bonds  were  ever  redeemed. 


The  Civil  War  413 

trine  that  a  State  could  constitutionally  withdraw  from  the 
Union  was  finally  and  completely  overthrown.  Doubtless, 
moral  indignation  over  the  great  wrong  of  slavery — that  first 
cause  of  disunion — went  far  toward  spurring  men  on  for 
the  defence  of  the  Union.  The  North  spent  in  treasure 
three  and  a  quarter  billions  of  dollars,  piling  up  a  debt  of 
$2,846,000,000.  For  this  cause  360,000  men  laid  down 
their  lives  in  the  field,  and  as  many  more  died  from 
wounds  and  sickness.*  They  won  for  posterity  a  united 
country,  freedom  from  the  shame  of  slavery,  and  exemption 
from  all  the  strife  and  economic  loss  that  must  have 
ensued  had  two  independent  nations  attempted  to  occupy 
the  geographical  territory  destined  for  one  people. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga.     Burgess,  The  Civil  War 
and  the  Constitution,  II,  chap.  26.    Dodge,  Bird's-Eye  View  of 
the  Civil  War,  chaps.  34,  35.     Schouler,  VI,  441-455. 

2.  Finances  of  United  States  during  the  war.     Burgess,  'II, 
225-229.     Blaine,  Twenty  Years  in  Congress,  I,  433.     Chase, 
Am.  St.  Series,  chap.  9. 

3.  Sheridan  in   the  Shenandoah  valley.     Dodge,    chap.   42. 
Schouler,  VI,  516-519.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  135. 

4.  Sherman's  march.     Burgess,  II,  261-266.     Dodge,  chaps. 
45,  46.     Schouler,  VI,  549-555.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No. 
137. 

5 .  Northern  and  Southern  soldiers .     Dodge,  116-121.  Schouler, 
VI,  246-316. 

6.  Prisons  and  prisoners.     Schouler,  VI,  407-414. 

7.  English  sentiment  toward  the  United  States.     Rhodes,  IV, 
76-95;  349-374.     Seward,  Am.  St.  Series,  II,  296-297  (new  ed.), 
296-297  (old  ed.).     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  98. 

*  "  While  the  money  cost  to  the  Confederacy  was  perhaps  one-half  that 
stated  for  the  Union,  the  number  of  lives  sacrificed  was  probably  about 
the  same.  Thus  the  total  loss  of  human  life  was  considerably  over  one 
million." — Hosmer,  Outcome  of  the  Civil  War,  304.  "The  blood  of  the 
Nation  was  lastingly  impoverished  by  that  awful  hemorrhage." — Ross, 
Foundations  of  Sociology,  392. 


414  American  History 

8.  Dissatisfaction  with  Lincoln  in  1864.     Rhodes,  IV,  518- 
522;    530-531.     Abraham  Lincoln,  Am.  St.  Series,  II,  246-249, 
267-268  (new  ed.),  246-249,  267-268  (old  ed.). 

9.  Economic   and   financial   conditions   in   the   Confederacy. 
Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  244-248.     Schouler,  VI,  568-575. 

10.  Lincoln's  appearance  and  personality.     Schouler,  VI,  20- 
23;     624-633.     Hart,    Contemporaries,    IV,    No.    96.     Lowell, 
Political   Essays.     Abraham  Lincoln,  Am.  St.  Series,  354-358 
(new  ed.),  354-358  (old  ed.). 

11.  Money  and  prices  in  war  times.     Hart,  Contemporaries, 
IV,  No.  82.     Vivid  descriptions  of  battle  scenes,  ibid.,  Nos.  87 
and  92.     The  sanitary  commission,  ibid.,  No.  89. 

12.  Causes  of  Northern  success.     Elson,  Sidelights  on  Amer 
ican  History,  II,  chap.  6. 

13.  Special  books  on  this  period.     Riddle,  Recollections  of 
War   Times.     McClure,    Lincoln    and    Men    of    War   Times. 
Greeley,  American  Conflict.     Wilson,  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave 
Power  in  America.     S.  S.  Cox,  Three  Decades  of  Federal  Legisla 
tion.     U.    S.    Grant,    Memoirs.     W.    T.    Sherman,    Memoirs. 
Avery,  A  Virginia  Girl  in  the  Civil  War.     J.  Davis,  Rise  and  Fall 
of  the  Confederate  Government.     Kieffer,   Recollections  of  a 
Drummer  Boy.     Porter,  Campaigning  with  Grant.     Recollec 
tions  and  Letters  of  Robert  E.  Lee,  by  His  Son.     Dodd,  Life  of 
Jefferson  Davis. 

14.  Lives  of  Grant  have  been  written  by  Church,  Stoddard, 
and  Allen;  of  Lee  by  White  and  Howe. 

15.  Lives  of  Lincoln  by  Brooks,  Hapgood,  and  Arnold. 

16.  Abraham  Lincoln:     A  History,  by  Nicolay  and  Hay,  the 
most  authoritative  account,  was  published  in  the  Century  Mag 
azine  from  Vol.  XIII  (1887)  to  Vol.  XVII. 

17.  In  the  Century  Magazine,  Volumes  VII  (1884)  to  XIII, 
is  a  series  of  articles  upon  the  various  campaigns,  many  of  them 
written  by  the  officers  in  command.     The  illustrations  are  in 
valuable. 

18.  Historical   fiction.     Brady,   The  Southerners.     Altsheler, 
Before  the  Dawn.     Page,  The  Burial  of  the  Guns;    and  other 
stories. 

19.  Further  material  on  the  Civil  War,  in  James  and  Mann, 
Readings  on  American  History,  chap.  24. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

RECONSTRUCTION,    1863-1872 

THE  grave  problems  that  confronted  the  Nation  at  the  conditions 
close  of  the  war  centered  about  industrial,  social,  and 
political  conditions  in  the  South.     Industrially,  that  sec 
tion  was  in  ruins. 

"The  people  were  generally  impoverished.  The  farms  had 
gone  to  waste;  the  fields  were  covered  with  weeds  and  bushes. 
Farm  implements  and  tools  were  gone;  live  stock  had  disap 
peared  so  that  there  were  barely  enough  farm  animals  to  meet 
the  demands  of  agriculture.  Business  was  at  a  standstill;  banks 
and  commercial  places  had  either  been  suspended  or  closed  on 
account  of  insolvency.  The  currency  was  in  a  wretched  condi 
tion,  and  the  disbanded  soldiers  returned  to  their  homes  to 
find  desolation  and  starvation  staring  them  in  the  face."  * 

One-third  of  the  white  bread-winners  had  been  either  The  freed 
killed  or  disabled.  But  the  most  difficult  problem  in  the  men- 
situation  involved  the  negroes,  who  comprised  one-half  of 
the  population.  Could  they  prove  their  fitness  for  free 
dom?  Under  slavery  they  had  been  elevated  from 
barbarism  to  at  least  a  semblance  of  civilization ;  but  they 
had  had  no  experience  in  working  under  any  other  incen 
tive  than  the  fear  or  the  love  of  a  master  who  was  at  the 
same  time  owner.  It  is  not  strange  that  they  should  have 
developed  little  power  of  self-control  and  that,  emerging 
from  slavery,  they  should  have  been,  on  the  whole,  both 
indolent  and  shiftless. 

During  the  war  the  mass  of  the  slaves  had  remained  on 
the  plantations,  quietly  guarding  the  women  and  the 
children  and  raising  crops.  For  their  admirable  conduct 

*  Garner,  Reconstruction  in  Mississippi,  122. 
415 


416  American  History 

The  origin  they  had  won  the  gratitude  of  their  masters.  If  this 
Freedman's  benevolent  attitude  could  have  continued,  all  might  have 
Bureau.  wejj.  kut  t^at  wag  not  to  j^  ^g  ^  victorious 


Union  armies  advanced,  particularly  after  the  issuance  of 
the  Emancipation  Proclamation,  multitudes  of  negroes 
flocked  to  them  for  protection.*  Many  of  them  followed 
the  troops,  while  others  left  their  plantations  and  went  to 
the  neighboring  towns  and  cities.  All  were  without 
means  of  subsistence,  and  consequently  the  Federal 
Government  was  forced,  for  humane  reasons,  to  begin  the 
practice  of  issuing  rations  and  clothing  to  them.  In  March, 
1865,  a  special  bureau  was  created  in  the  War  Depart 
ment,  known  as  the  Freedman's  Bureau,  with  officers  and 
agents  in  all  parts  of  the  South.  Its  purposes  were:  (1) 
The  distribution  of  food,  clothing,  and  fuel  to  destitute 
freedmen;  (2)  the  distribution  among  them  of  abandoned 
or  confiscated  lands;  (3)  the  establishment  of  schools  for 
their  instruction. 

During  the  summer  of  1865  and  the  winter  that  followed, 
multitudes  of  freedmen  were  without  occupation;  against 
the  advice  of  the  Freedman's  Bureau  officials,  they  con 
tinued  flocking  to  the  towns  and  wandering  from  place 
to  place.  Petty  larceny  became  very  common.  Many, 
indeed,  took  advantage  of  their  new  freedom  to  assume 
insolent  airs  toward  their  former  masters. 
Lincoln's  Another  problem  was  more  purely  political;  viz.,  what 

reconstruct-    Was  the  le&al  StatUS  °*  th°  Southern  States  ?      Their  legal 
tion.  governments  had  been  overthrown  and  their  constitutional 

relation  to  the  Union  had  been  broken.  By  what  methods 
and  by  what  authority  should  these  be  reestablished? 
President  Lincoln  had  made  some  progress  in  solving  this 
problem  before  his  death. 

Avoiding  the  abstract  question  as  to  whether  the  Southern 
States  were  legally  in  or  out  of  the  Union,  he  maintained  that 
they  were  "out  of  their  proper  practical  relation  with  the  Na- 

*  Fifty  thousand  slaves  were  gathered  about  Grant's  army  at  Vicks- 
burg. 


A-  rrmesty    Oa  tl  i. 

Office  of   Assistant   Provost  Marshal, 


\.  .  'k>  -<tU'!imly  iwcnr,  (or  atftrm),  in  tlx? 

pn  •.«•)!<«•  «>f  Ai  Minn  v  (ion.  thiit  I  will  hctwfoith  faithfully  -upjiort.  protect  .-mil  <lcf«-»nl  thf-  Constitution 
«,f  lt,«-  I  inu-a  Sd.lo  am)  tin-  Vnii.ii  of  tin-  Si«tt-«  tl>*T<-tm<l.-r.  riml  that  !  ml!,  in  lik<>  timnnor,  ;il»i<Jc  \ty 
i.t,.l  la.thlully  s,,],|«>rt  nil  law*.  a»nl  prixlmimiion^ -wl«id«  hav*-  bi-<-n  made  .Isinn-  tin:  <  xistin^  r<-lx-l!ioi.  with 
r.-lrr«-n<  c  to  fhr  <  ui:inri|mtion  of  -^lnvi>s.  So  HfctP  Mg  Go»>. 

K«IT  11  fitx!  SU!>M  rilH.'il  to,  U  fore  me,  this  day  ^ 

,,C  18*55.  > 

( 'ut.  ami  Att'l  Prorvtt  MartkaL 


I  !«>  tipnniv  cKKTirv,  Tlwt  on  the day  of ; ,  1^(5.',  at 

th«-  Oath  prescribed  V»y  the  Iframdent  of  the  (Jnitni  Staff*,  in  his  • 

!'i%«)«ii.Ht!».n  t»f  M«y  29th.  iJ-ieS.*^!!  duly  taken,  »ob<*cr'l»;"d  and  niude  matter  of  record  hy 
.of 


Parole  signed  by  a  Confederate  Soldier 
Amnesty  Oath  to  be  taken  by  Confederates 


418 


American  History 


Lincoln's 
policy  in 
effect. 


The  ex 
perience 
and  char 
acter  of 
President 
Johnson. 


tional  Government."  *  When  the  Union  army  overthrew  the 
Confederate  authorities  in  any  Southern  State  or  part  of  a  State, 
that  region  was  under  the  military  authority  of  the  United 
States;  and  its  government  might  be  dictated  by  the  President 
as  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army,  acting  through  a  military 
governor.  The  President  had  authority  to  direct  and  assist  the 
loyal  inhabitants  of  any  such  section  in  the  establishment  of  a 
new  civil  government.  The  number  of  loyal  voters  necessary 
in  the  formation  of  a  new  government  was  not  less  than  one- 
tenth  the  number  who  had  voted  in  1860.  This,  briefly  stated, 
was  Lincoln's  plan  of  reconstruction. 

In  order  to  encourage  the  return  of  Southerners  to  their 
former  allegiance,  Lincoln  issued  (December,  1863)  a 
Proclamation  of  Amnesty,  granting  "full  pardon"  to  such 
of  them  as  would  take  an  oath  to  support  the  United 
States  Government;  but  certain  classes  were  excluded 
from  this  benefit,  particularly  civil  and  military  officers  of 
the  Confederate  Government  and  those  Confederates  who 
had  formerly  held  United  States  offices.  President  Lin 
coln's  plan  of  reconstruction  was  put  into  practical  effect 
in  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Tennessee.  It  was  well 
understood  by  Lincoln  that  the  process  of  reconstruction 
could  be  completed  only  by  the  admission  of  Senators  and 
Representatives  into  Congress  from  these  States ;  and  that 
over  this  matter  the  Houses  had  complete  control. 

Lincoln's  procedure  met  with  the  bitter  opposition  of  a 
few  Republican  members  of  Congress,  and  at  his  death 
the  problem  was  still  unsolved.  The  method  of  recon 
struction  to  be  adopted  must  depend  upon  the  views  of 
the  man  who  now  assumed  the  Presidency  and  of  the 
Republican  leaders  in  Congress. 

President  Johnson  had  been  a  tailor  by  trade.  Reared  in 
poverty  and  without  education,  he  had  advanced  in  life  by  sheer 
energy  and  force  of  character.  He  had  been  elected  to  the  State 
Legislature  of  Tennessee  and  to  the  United  States  House  of 
Representatives;  he  had  been  Governor  of  Tennessee  and  then 

*  See  Lincoln's  address  of  April  11,  1865;  American  History  Leaflets, 
No.  26,  pp.  31-35;  Lamed 's  History  for  Ready  Reference,  1863,  De 
cember,  and  1865,  April  11, 


Reconstruction  419 

United  States  Senator.  He  refused  to  join  in  the  secession 
movement  in  his  State,  and  in  1862  was  made  by  Lincoln  military 
governor  of  Tennessee.  A  man  of  pure  motives  and  genuine 
patriotism,  he  was  yet  the  victim  of  a  violent  and  unreasoning 
temper.  The  strength  of  will  and  stubborn  adherence  to  pur 
pose  that  had  raised  him  from  obscurity  to  eminence,  were  now 
to  be  displayed  where  tact  and  accommodation  to  men  of  dif 
ferent  views  were  necessary. 

On  May  29,  1865,  President  Johnson  issued  an  Am-  His  recon- 
nesty  Proclamation  similar  to  that  of  Lincoln,  but  exclud- 
ing  from  the  privilege  of  general  pardon  a  larger  number 
of  classes;  notable  among  these  were  all  ex-Confederates 
possessing  taxable  property  of  $20,000  value.  All  persons 
of  the  excepted  classes,  however,  had  the  privilege  of  ob 
taining  special  pardon  upon  application  to  the  President. 
Johnson  subsequently  displayed  great  leniency  in  the 
granting  of  special  pardons. 

Congress  was  not  in  session  between  March  and  De-  steps 
cember,  1865;  consequently,  ample  opportunity  was  given  **j^iJ° 
for  the  execution  of  the  President's  policy  of  reconstruc-  out. 
tion.  A  provisional  governor  was  appointed  by  the  Presi 
dent  for  each  one  of  the  seceding  States.  Elections  were 
then  held  for  choosing  delegates  to  constitutional  conven 
tions  in  those  States.  The  conventions,  after  repealing 
or  declaring  null  and  void  the  ordinances  of  secession, 
proceeded  to  amend  their  former  constitutions  by  abolish 
ing  slavery.  Elections  were  held  for  members  of  the 
State  Legislatures  and  for  Representatives  in  Congress. 
These  steps  were  completed  in  most  of  the  Southern  States 
by  the  time  Congress  met.  Now,  it  was  the  duty  of  Con 
gress,  said  President  Johnson,  to  recognize  these  States  by 
admitting  their  Senators  and  Representatives  to  seats  at 
once. 

The  policy  thus  rapidly  and  effectively  put  into  execu-  Opposition 
tion  met  with  determined  opposition  in   Congress.     (1)   son's 
The  leaders  in  Congress  believed  that  the  President  had   policy, 
assumed  unwarranted  powers;  that  the  authority  to  direct 
the  reconstruction  process  resided  in  Congress.     (2)  The 


420  American  History 

President's  policy  was  considered  too  liberal.  Many 
persons  in  the  North  were  loath  to  believe  that  the  "rebels''" 
were  sincerely  repentant.  Should  there  not  be  at  least  a 
period  of  probation  during  which  their  sincerity  could  be 
demonstrated  and  guarantees  for  their  future  conduct  be 
secured?  (3)  In  the  Southern  States  the  Democratic 
party  was  in  control.  If  the  Northern  and  Southern  wings 
of  that  party  should  now  combine,  they  might  secure  the 
control  of  Congress,  and  of  the  Presidency.  To  many  Re 
publicans  this  would  seem  like  resigning  the  Government 
into  the  hands  of  those  who  had  done  their  best  to  wreck  the 
Union  and  to  perpetuate  slavery.*  (4)  During  the  winter 
of  1865-1866,  the  Legislatures  of  the  Southern  States  enacted 
laws  which  were  intended  to  mitigate  the  evils  that  arose 
while  the  freedmen,  still  in  large  measure  idle  and  lawless, 
were  roving  about  and  congregating  in  towns  and  .cities. 
The  Black  These  laws,  known  as  the  Black  Codes,  differed  in 
the  various  States,  but  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
(1)  All  free  negroes  or  persons  of  color  should  have 
regular  occupations,  or  employment  under  written  con 
tract;  and  quitting  the  service  of  employers,  when 
under  contract,  would  subject  them  to  arrest.  (2)  Freed 
men  found  without  employment  were  considered  vagrants 
and  were  subject  to  arrest  and  fine.  Failure  to  pay  the 
fine  (which  was,  of  course,  inevitable)  would  cause  such 
persons  to  be  hired  out  to  employers,  preferably  their 
former  masters.  (3)  The  same  penalty  was  fixed  for  the 
commission  of  those  crimes  and  petty  offences  of  which 
the  free  negro  was  commonly  guilty;  even  cruelty  to  ani 
mals,  seditious  speeches,  insulting  gestures,  language,  or 
acts,'  were  included  in  the  list  of  offences.  (4)  All  negroes 
under  eighteen  years  of  age  who  were  orphans,  or  whose 
parents  did  not  support  them,  might  be  apprenticed  by  a 

*  "  Have  we  endured  and  prosecuted  this  war  for  the  sake  of  bringing 
back  our  old  enemies  to  legislate  for  us,  stronger  than  ever,  with  all  the 
resentment  and  none  of  the  instruction  of  defeat?" — James  Russell 
Lowell,  Political  Essays. 


Reconstruction  421 

court  to  employers,  preferably  to  their  former  masters. 
The  apprenticeship  should  last,  in  the  case  of  males,  until 
they  were  twenty-one,  and  in  the  case  of  females  until 
they  were  eighteen  years  of  age.  The  master  had  power 
to  inflict  corporal  punishment  upon  an  apprentice;  deser 
tion  was  followed  by  arrest. 

Southerners  justified  these  laws  by  the  conditions  then  pre-  justiflca- 
vailing,  as  described  in  preceding  paragraphs.  To  them  it  tion  and 
seemed  unreasonable  to  expect  the  ex-slaves  to  develop  in-  ^^gj™ 
stantly  self-control  and  industrious  habits.  In  this  transitional 
period,  the  freedmen  must  be  restrained  by  strict  legislation. 
Moreover,  said  they,  the  freedmen  have  been  systematically 
taught  by  agents  of  the  Freedman's  Bureau  and  of  Northern 
philanthropic  societies  to  regard  themselves  as  equals  of  the 
whites  in  every  respect.  They  had,  in  consequence,  become  in 
solent  and  dangerous.  Their  false  ideas  of  National  protection 
and  bounty  had  deterred  them  from  industry.  The  negro,  said 
Southerners,  is  not  the  equal  of  the  white  man  in  civilization, 
and  we  shall  not  regard  him  as  our  equal  in  social,  civil,  or 
political  rights.  In  the  North,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Black 
Codes  were  regarded  as  an  evasion  of  the  Thirteenth  Amend 
ment  and  an  indirect  method  of  reestablishing  negro  slavery. 
The  enemies  of  slavery  saw  behind  these  laws  only  the  spirit  of 
race  animosity. 

Throughout  the  North,  sectional  hatred  was  inflamed.   Northern 

T       ^  ,1          .  .  .x.  T  ,  IIP    viewsot'the 

In  Congress  the  rising  opposition  to  Johnsons  plan  of  negro  ques- 

reconstruction  was  strengthened.  From  the  Republican  tion- 
standpoint,  the  new  State  governments  had  demonstrated 
their  incapacity  to  cope  with  the  negro  problem.  As  a 
consequence,  it  seemed  necessary  to  enact  National  legisla 
tion  protecting  the  freedman  from  such  discriminations 
against  his  civil  rights,  and  to  exact  from  the  Southern 
States  certain  guarantees  before  their  readmission  into 
the  Union.  To  many  Northerners  of  the  more  radical 
type,  the  only  solution  of  the  problem  seemed  to  lie  in  the 
granting  of  negro  suffrage.  Congress  contained  a  Repub 
lican  majority  who  now  refused  to  admit  the  newly  elected 
Senators  and  Representatives  from  the  Southern  States 
to  their  seats.  A  joint  committee  of  fifteen  was  appointed 


422 


American  History 


Republi- 


in  Con 
gress. 


The 
Freed 
man's 
Bureau 
bill. 


to  report  a  plan  of  reconstruction.  Instead  of  attempting, 
by  consultation,  to  bring  about  some  compromise,  Presi 
dent  Johnson  upheld  his  own  policy  with  characteristic 
violence,  and  in  this  he  received  Democratic  support. 

Among  the  Republicans  in  Congress,  Thaddeus  Stevens,  of 
Pennsylvania,  exerted  the  most  powerful  influence  in  the  House. 
He  was  a  man  of  strong,  uncom 
promising  convictions,  and  one 
of  the  greatest  parliamentarians 
of  our  history.  His  speeches 
abounded  in  wit  and  sarcasm 
and  frequently  breathed  the 
spirit  of  acrimony.  In  the  Sen 
ate,  Charles  Sumner  played  the 
leading  part.  His  constant  ad 
herence  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
equality  of  all  men  placed  him 
with  the  radicals  in  dealing  with 
the  Southern  question.  Neither 
he  nor  Stevens  could  rest  while 
there  remained  upon  the  statute 
books  of  the  Nation,  or  of  any 
State,  a  trace  of  the  negro's  infe 
riority  in  civil  or  political  rights. 

The  first  measure  passed 
by  the  Republicans  was  a  bill 
for  the  continuance  of  the  Freedman's  Bureau  and  the 
enlargement  of  its  powers  (January,  1866).  Its  agents 
were  authorized  to  take  from  the  courts  any  case  (either 
civil  or  criminal)  in  which  it  seemed  that  a  freedman's 
rights  might  not  be  fully  secured.  The  Bureau  was  to 
receive  the  support  of  United  States  troops.  In  vetoing 
this  bill,  Johnson  argued  in  a  dignified  and  conclusive  way 
that  it  was  a  war  measure  for  which,  in  times  of  peace, 
there  was  neither  legal  nor  moral  justification;  and  that 
it  would  not  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  industrial  problem 
of  the  South.  The  bill  failed  to  pass  over  his  veto. 

In  a  public  speech  made  on  February  22d,  Johnson 
cited  by  name  Stevens,  Sumner,  and  Wendell  Phillips  as 
enemies  of  their  country.  The  breach  between  the  Presi- 


Charles  Sumner 


Reconstruction  423 

dent  and  the  majority  of  Congress  was  now  complete,  and  The  Con- 
on  March  2,  1866,  the  House  passed  a  resolution  that  Sena-  %^™m 
tors  and  Representatives  should  not  be  admitted  to  Con-   begun, 
gress  from  any  of  the  eleven  States  until  Congress  had  de 
clared  them  entitled  to  representation.    Congress  now  pro 
ceeded  to  put  into  force  its  own  policy  of  reconstruction. 

The  motives  that  inspired  this  policy  were  mingled  in  the 
different  men  who  led  the  way;  but  these  motives  may  be 
classified  as  (1)  humane,  in  so  far  as  they  contemplated  the 
protection  and  elevation  of  the  freedmen;  (2)  vindictive,  in 
looking  toward  the  punishment  of  the  South  for  its  sins;  (3) 
political,  in  aiming  at  the  maintenance  of  Republican  supremacy; 
(4)  personal,  as  inspired  by  hatred  of  the  President. 

The  Civil  Rights  bill,  passed  in  March,  1866,  declared  i.  The 
that  "all  persons  born  in  the  United  States,  and  not  sub- 
ject  to  any  foreign  power,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,"  bill, 
were  citizens  of  the  United  States;  that  all  citizens  "of 
every  race  and  color,  without  regard  to  previous  condition 
of  slavery,"  were  entitled  to  the  same  civil  rights  in  every 
State;  that  the  laws  for  the  protection  of  citizens  and  for 
the  punishment  of  offenders  should  apply  to  blacks  the 
same  as  to  whites.  This  law  was  a  distinct  blow  at  the 
Black  Codes.  It  established  a  new  policy  under  which 
the  National  Government  defined  civil  rights  (hitherto 
entirely  within  the  province  of  State  legislation)  and  en 
forced  them  by  the  use  of  its  military  authority.  The  bill 
was  vetoed  as  a  matter  of  course  by  Johnson,  but  it  was 
passed  over  his  veto. 

The  next  important  legislation,  enacted  in  June,  1866,   n.  The 
after  a  report  of  the  Committee  on  Reconstruction  and  teenth 
many  weeks  of  discussion,  was  the  proposed  Fourteenth 
Amendment,  which  Congress  now  submitted  to  the  States 
for  ratification.     It  read  as  follows: 

"Section  1.     All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  Citizens 

States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  a.nd  tneir 

United  States,  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.     No  State  nghts- 
shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges 


424 


American  History 


Threat 
ened  re 
duction  of 
represen 
tation. 


Disabili 
ties  of  ex- 
Confeder 
ates. 


The  Con 
federate 
debts. 


or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  nor  shall  any 
State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due 
process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the 
equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

"Sect.  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting 
the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice 
of  electors  for  president  and  vice-president  of  the  United  States, 
representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of 
a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any 
of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged, 
except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crimes,  the  basis  of 
representation  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the 
number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of 
male  citizens,  twenty-one  years  of  age,  in  such  State. 

"Sect.  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in 
Congress,  or  elector  of  president  or  vice-president,  or  hold  any 
office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States  or  under  any 
State,  who  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of 
Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of 
any  State  legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any 
State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have 
engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid 
or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  a  vote 
of  two-thirds  of  each  house  remove  such  disability. 

"Sec.  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States,  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment 
of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection 
or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United 
States,  nor  any  State,  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation 
incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave; 
but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal 
and  void. 

"Sect.  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  by  ap 
propriate  legislation  the  provisions  of  this  article." 

The  first  section  of  this  amendment  is  evidently  a  repetition 
of  the  Civil  Rights  Act.  The  abolition  of  slavery  resulted  in 
the  annulment  of  the  three-fifths  clause  of  Article  I  of  the  Con 
stitution,  and  would  consequently  increase  the  representation  of 
the  Southern  States  in  the  House  and  the  number  of  their 
electoral  votes.  Republican  supremacy  was  thus  endangered, 


Reconstruction  425 

unless  the  number  of  Democratic  Representatives  could  be  cut 
down  by  the  device  of  the  second  section;  for  it  was  never  con 
ceived  that  a  Southern  State  would  grant  suffrage  to  the  negroes. 
The  third  section  of  the  proposed  amendment  disqualified  for 
holding  offices  all  leaders  of  the  South.  The  President  might 
pardon  these  "ex-  rebels,"  but  Congress  alone  could,  by  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  House,  restore  this  important  political  right.  The 
fourth  section  was  a  reasonable  guarantee  of  National  dignity 
with  respect  to  the  debts  and  expenses  of  the  war. 

Numerous  events  now  occurred  that  had  the  effect  of  Events 
driving  the  majority  of  Congress  to  a  more  radical  posi- 


tion.  (1)  President  Johnson  made  a  circuit  through  im-  more  rad- 
portant  cities  (New  York,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Indian-  tion. 
apolis,  among  others),  in  the  course  of  which,  provoked 
by  the  taunts  of  his  enemies,  he  made  undignified  and  in 
sulting  remarks  concerning  Congress  and  Republicans. 
(2)  The  fall  elections  (1866)  for  members  of  Congress 
showed  increased  Republican  gains,  and  these  betokened 
popular  approval  of  Congressional  action.  (3)  The  Southern 
States  showed  great  hostility  to  the  Fourteenth  Amendment, 
and  all  except  Tennessee  finally  rejected  it.*  (4)  Reports 
reached  the  North  of  disturbed  conditions  in  the  South, 
including  the  abuse  of  the  freedmen  and  riots  involving 
much  bloodshed. 

In  view  of  these  events  all  conservatism  in  Congress  was  in.  The 
now  laid  aside,  and  this  body  went  forward  to  the  execu-  Auction 
tion  of  a  most  rigorous  policy.     This  was  embodied  in  the  Act  of 
Reconstruction   Act   of   March,    1867:   (1)   The  ten   un-   1 
reconstructed  States  were  divided  into  five  military  dis 
tricts,  each  under  an  officer  of  the  army  and  an  adequate 
force  of  troops.     Military  government  might  supersede  the 
existing  civil  government  at  any  place  where  this  seemed 
desirable.     (2)  The  officers  in  command  should  supervise 
the  election  of  a  constitutional  convention  in  each  State; 
those  who  could  vote  for  delegates  to  these  conventions  were 
to  be  male  citizens  twenty  -one  years  of  age,  "of  whatever 

*  Tennessee  ratified   the  amendment,   and  its  Senators  and  Repre 
sentatives  were  admitted  to  Congress  before  its  adjournment  in  July. 


426 


American  History 


Its  results. 


Political 
conditions 
in  the 
South. 


race,  color,  or  previous  condition  " ;  except  such  as  might  be 
disfranchised  for  participation  in  rebellion.  This  meant 
the  enfranchisement  of  the  blacks  and  the  disfranchise- 
ment  of  the  majority  of  the  whites.  (3)  The  conventions 
should  frame  State  constitutions  in  which  the  negro  should 
be  granted  suffrage.  (4)  These  constitutions  should  be 
ratified  by  popular  vote,  the  same  qualifications  being 
employed  here  as  in  the  election  of  delegates.  (5)  The 
State  Legislatures  electing  under  these  new  governments 
should  ratify  the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  (6)  Congress 
would  then  declare  the  admission  of  the  Senators  and 
Representatives  from  these  States  and  their  full  restora 
tion  to  the  Union. 

Under  this  law  many  State  and  local  officials  in  the 
Southern  States  were  removed  and  superseded  by  men 
who  approved  of  negro  suffrage  and  the  Reconstruction 
Act.  Thus  Congress  succeeded  in  its  purpose  of  taking 
all  political  power  in  these  States  from  the  persons  who 
had  been  active  in  the  struggle  against  the  Union. 

The  actual  government  of  the  Southern  States  now  fell 
into  the  hands  of  four  groups  of  persons:  (1)  Southern 
unionists  who  had  been  ostracized  or  banished  during  the 
war,  and  a  few  ex-Confederates  who  now  acquiesced  in 
the  Congressional  policy;  these  were  called  " scalawags.'1' 
(2)  A  class  of  Northerners  who  went  South  after  the  war, 
some  to  make  investments  (chiefly  buying  up  at  a  low 
figure,  estates  of  insolvent  or  dead  planters),  and  others 
deliberately  to  get  public  offices;  these  were  known  as 
"carpet-baggers."  (3)  The  negroes.*  (4)  Some  South 
erners,  mostly  business  men  who  had  not  previously  taken 
active  part  in  politics.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say 
that  the  dominant  political  party  in  each  State  was  the  Re 
publican.  Following  the  provisions  of  the  Reconstruction 

*  "  Of  the  registered  voters  (previous  to  the  constitutional  conventions) 
a  majority  were  negroes  in  South  Carolina,  Alabama,  Florida,  and 
Louisiana,  and  probably  in  Mississippi.  In  the  constitutional  conven 
tions  negroes  were  a  majority  of  the  delegates  in  South  Carolina." — Dun- 
ning's  Essays  on  the  Civil  War  and  Reconstruction,  188,  194. 


Reconstruction  427 

Act,  the  States  of  Arkansas,  North  and  South  Carolina, 
Louisiana,  Florida,  and  Alabama  were  admitted  to  the 
Union  in  1868.  In  July  of  that  year,  it  was  announced 
that  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  had  been  ratified  by  the 
required  number  of  States  and  was  a  part  of  the  Con 
stitution.  The  readmission  of  Virginia,  Georgia,  Texas, 
and  Mississippi  was  postponed  for  various  reasons  until 
the  year  1870. 

In  the  meantime,  Congress  had  proposed  (February, 
1869)  a  new  constitutional  amendment. 

"  Section  1.     The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote   The  Fif- 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any    te^nth. 
State,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  ser-    m^tn 
vitude. 

"  Sect.  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation." 

This  was  intended  to  place  negro  suffrage  beyond  the 
power  of  Congress  and  the  State  Legislatures.  The  Fif 
teenth  Amendment  was  ratified  and  declared  in  force  in 
March,  1870. 

In  March,  1867,  Congress  had  enacted  the  Tenure  of  The  Ten- 
Office  Act,  a  law  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  trap  delib-  office  Act 
erately  set  to  catch  Johnson  in  the  commission  of  an  im- 
peachable  offence.     Its  occasion  was  the  removal  by  the 
President,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  his  predeces 
sors  since  Jackson's  time,  of  many  officers  who  were  not 
in  sympathy  with  his  administration. 

The    Constitution,    vesting    the    appointment    of    important    Did  the 
officers  in  the  President  "with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the    President 
Senate,"  is  silent  as  to  the  process  of  removal.     Since  the  estab-    Pow^of6 
lishment  of   the  Government,  however,  the  power  to  remove    removal? 
such  officers  had  been  regarded  as  a  prerogative  of  the  President 
alone.     This  conclusion  had  been  arrived  at  during  debate  in 
the  first  Congress  and  was  strengthened  by  judicial  decision. 
The  Tenure  of  Office  Act  declared  that  every  officer  appointed 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  should  continue  to 
hold  his  position  until  the  Senate  agreed  to  his  removal.     Dur 
ing  a  recess  of  the  Senate  the  President  might  suspend  an  officer, 


428 


American  History 


The  im 
peachment 
of  Presi 
dent 
Johnson. 


Constitu 
tion,  Art. 
II,  sec.  4. 
Art.  I,  sec. 
2,  cl.  5. 
Sec.  3,  els. 
6,  7. 


The  trial 
and  its  out 
come. 


but  if  the  Senate  disapproved  of  this  the  officer  should  resume 
his  position.  President  Johnson  asked  for  the  resignation  of 
Secretary  of  War  Stanton  in  August,  1867.  General  Grant  was 
authorized  to  act  as  Secretary  of  War  until  the  Senate  should 
act  upon  the  matter.  The  Senate  refused  (January,  1868)  to 
concur  in  Stanton 's  suspension,  and  he  thereupon  resumed  his 
office.  The  President  then  issued  an  order  for  his  removal  and 
appointed  a  successor. 

This  led  at  once  to  the  voting  of  articles  of  impeach 
ment  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  President 
was  charged  with  "high  crimes  and  misdemeanors"  in 
eleven  articles.  These,  briefly  summarized,  specified:  (1) 
His  violation  of  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  in  the  removal  of 
Stanton;  (2)  his  declarations  and  public  speeches,  in 
which  it  was  maintained  that  he  sought  "to  destroy  the 
regard  and  respect  of  all  the  good  people  of  the  United 
States  for  Congress  and  the  legislative  power  thereof " ; 
(3)  his  opposition  to  the  Reconstruction  Act.  Among  the 
leaders  of  the  House  who  conducted  the  prosecution 
before  the  Senate  were  Thaddeus  Stevens,  Benjamin  F. 
Butler,  and  George  S.  Boutwell.  The  President  was  de 
fended  by  able  lawyers,  among  them  William  M.  Evarts 
and  Benjamin  R.  Curtis. 

This  notable  trial  lasted  ten  weeks  and  attracted  the  atten 
tion  of  the  civilized  world.  Again  the  stability  of  our  institu 
tions  was  put  to  a  test;  but  in  spite  of  all  the  bitter  feeling  and 
party  hatred  that  had  been  engendered,  the  forms  of  law  were 
fully  observed  and  there  was  no  thought  of  resort  to  physical 
violence  on  either  side.  The  defence  maintained  that  the  Tenure 
of  Office  Act  encroached  upon  a  constitutional  power  of  the 
President — the  independent  right  of  removing  his  subordinates. 
The  loss  of  this  power,  it  was  argued,  would  destroy  the  equality 
of  this  department  and  place  the  Executive  at  the  mercy  of 
Congress.  The  vote  upon  the  article  of  impeachment  involving 
this  question  was  35  to  19,  and  thus  the  Senate  failed  by  one 
vote  to  convict  the  President.  Seven  Republicans  who  had 
hitherto  opposed  the  President  in  his  contest  with  Congress, 
and  four  Republicans  who  had  hitherto  sided  with  him,  voted 
with  eight  Democrats  in  his  favor.  No  vote  was  taken 
on  the  other  charges,  and  the  accusation  was  dropped.  Thus 
ended  the  most  dramatic  incident  in  the  civil  history  of  the 


Reconstruction 


429 


United  States — an  incident  which  friends  of  both  parties  in  the 
unseemly  dispute  were  soon  glad  to  forget. 

In  the  election  of  1868  the  Democratic  party  condemned  The  eiec- 
in  strong  terms  the  reconstruction  policy  of  the  Repub-  J1^0 
licans;   they  also  favored  the  payment  of  the  war  bonds 


^W  a  ft 


of  JJ.  H-  BERRY, 

m  olTiif  ii 

CHILDREN  S  CABftlACES,  WACOM*,  i 


Facsimile  of  a  Bill  for  Furnishing  the  State  House  at 
Columbia,   S.  C.,  in  1872 

in  greenbacks  instead  of  in  gold.  This  was  intended  as  a 
means  by  which  the  stock  of  money  in  the  country  would 
be  increased,  and  thereby  the  period  of  high  prices  pro 
longed.  The  Republicans  condemned  this  policy  as 
amounting  to  repudiation  of  a  part  of  the  debt,  since  the 
bondholders  had  expected  payment  in  gold,  and  the  legal 


430 


American  History 


The  gov 
ernment  of 
the  recon 
structed 
States. 


Abuses 
under  the 
carpet 
bag  gov 
ernments. 


tenders  were  not  yet  at  par.  General  Grant  was 
unanimously  nominated  by  the  Republican  conven 
tion  as  candidate  for  President,  with  Schuyler  Colfax, 
of  Indiana,  for  Vice-President.  The  Democrats  nomi 
nated  Horatio  Seymour,  of  New  York,  and  General 
Francis  P.  Blair,  of  Missouri.  The  election  was  a  Repub 
lican  victory,  that  party  carrying  six  Southern  States, 
while  three  others  (Virginia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas)  cast 
no  votes. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  reconstruction  policy  of  Con 
gress  there  was  a  complete  reversal  of  ante  bellum  political 
conditions  in  the  Southern  States.  The  class  formerly  in 
control  was  now  devoid  of  power  and  a  new  class  ruled. 
The  negroes,  who  composed  the  majority  of  the  voters, 
were  almost  completely  under  the  domination  of  the  en 
franchised  whites;  among  these  the  carpet-baggers  were 
in  most  of  the  States  the  ruling  faction.*  Many  of  these 
Northerners  were  men  of  integrity,  but  others  were  un 
scrupulous  and  exercised  an  influence  for  evil  over  the 
ignorant,  excitable,  and  child-like  negroes. 

Under  these  conditions  there  began  in  the  reconstructed 
States,  the  period  of  carpet-bag  government — a  period 
characterized  by  the  greatest  corruption.  It  was,  in  brief, 
the  most  complete  travesty  upon  popular  government  that 
our  country  has  ever  known.  There  was  in  many  States 
great  extravagance  in  expenditures.  Appropriations  were 
made,  the  greater  part  of  which  found  their  way  into  the 
pockets  of  legislators,  contractors,  and  politicians.  Great 
amounts  of  money  were  borrowed  by  the  issuance  of  State 
bonds.  Heavy  taxes  were  levied;  these  fell  chiefly  upon 
the  property  of  the  disfranchised  classes.  The  indig 
nities  heaped  upon  the  whites  of  the  South  were  even  more 
unbearable.  In  many  cases  both  local  and  State  offices 
were  filled  by  ignorant  and  vicious  negroes,  who  used  their 
power  to  wreak  vengeance  upon  their  former  masters  and 
their  political  enemies. 

*  Exceptions  may  be  found  in  Virginia  and  Georgia. 


Reconstruction 


431 


In  Mississippi  the  State  printing  bill  increased  from  $8,000  to 
$73,000  a  year.  The  salaries  of  clerks  in  the  Legislature,  which 
had  amounted  in  the  aggregate  to  $30  or  $40  a  day,  now  be 
came  $150  a  day.  The  tax  rate  ranged  from  2^  per  cent,  to  5 
per  cent.,  while  the  property  had  greatly  decreased  in  value. 
Six  million  acres  of  land,  one-fifth  of  the  total  area  of  the  State, 
were  sold  for  the  non-payment  of  taxes.  In  Alabama  the  State 
debt  was  increased  from  $8,000,000  to  $25,000,000.  In  Ten 
nessee  a  similar  amount  was  added  to  the  public  debt.  Enor 
mous  bond  issues  were  made  in  various  States  in  aid  of  rail 
roads  and  other  enterprises;  in  many  cases,  this  money  was 
simply  stolen. 


Facsimile  of  a  "Gratuity"  Voted  to  Governor  Moses  by  the  South 
Carolina  Legislature  in  1871 

The  white  political  leaders  had  created  in  many  places  The  use  of 
Loyal  Leagues  and  other  organizations  that  fostered  the 
negro's  sense  of  his  social  equality  with  the  whites  and  in 
creased  his  desire  for  political  activity.  Soon  there  arose 
throughout  the  suffering  communities  of  these  States, 
various  organizations  of  former  Confederates,  holding 
secret  meetings  and  bent  upon  mutual  protection  and 
revenge  for  their  wrongs.  Mysterious  warnings  and  mid 
night  raids  of  white-robed  horsemen  were  calculated  to 
frighten  negroes  from  voting  and  other  participation  in 
politics,  and  from  dependence  upon  their  white  leaders. 
Negroes  were  frequently  whipped.  Many  carpet-baggers 
and  agents  of  the  Freedman's  Bureau  and  white  school- 


432  American  History 

teachers  were  driven  away  and  some  were  murdered. 
Naturally,  this  exercise  of  violence  went  to  extremes  as 
these  organizations,  originally  controlled  by  the  better 
class,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  rougher  and  more  lawless 
element.  There  resulted,  therefore,  a  reign  of  terror  con 
ducted  by  secret  and  violent  methods,  such  as  other 
countries  have  witnessed  when  the  oppression  of  govern 
ment  drove  a  class  to  desperation. 

The  names  of  some  of  these  organizations  were  Knights  of 
the  White  Camellia,  White  Brotherhood,  and  Pale  Faces.  The 
most  famous  was  the  Ku  Klux  Klan,*  which  originated  in 
Tennessee  (1866)  among  some  young  ex-Confederates  seeking 
merely  fun  and  excitement.  These  organizations  spread  through 
out  the  South.  Their  clubs  were  called  "  Dens,"  and  their  officers 
had  such  titles  as  Grand  Cyclops,  Grand  Magi,  and  Grand  Turk. 

The  Force  The  terrible  weapon  that  the  white  man  thus  raised 
policy.  against  negro  rule  was  striking  down  the  freedmen's  newly 
acquired  civil  and  political  rights.  Congress  retaliated  by 
a  series  of  Force  Laws  enacted  in  1870-1871,  fixing  severe 
penalties  for  depriving  any  person  of  his  civil  rights  under 
the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  and  especially  for  depriving 
one  of  his  right  to  vote.  The  registration  of  voters  and  the 
election  of  members  of  Congress  were  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  United  States  officers  and  courts.  The 
President  might  suspend  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  any 
region  where  he  thought  it  necessary,  and  send  United 
States  troops  to  keep  order.  These  acts  virtually  brought 
about  military  control  of  elections.  In  the  next  few  years 
troops  were  frequently  called  upon  to  quell  riots  and  to 
uphold  the  Republican  authorities  in  various  States. 

Meanwhile,  in  one  State  after  another,  the  Republican 
governments  were  being  defeated  at  the  polls  by  the  white 
(Democratic)  party. f  This  was  brought  about  in  various 

*  From  Greek  kuklns,  meaning  circle.  See  Brown's  The  Lower  South 
in  American  History;  also  Atlantic  Monthly,  LXXXVII,  634-644. 

f'This  occurred  in  Tennessee,  1869;  North  Carolina,  1870;  Texas, 
Georgia,  Virginia,  1870-1871:  Alabama,  Arkansas.  1869;  Mississippi, 
1875."— Lalor,  Encyclopaedia,  III,  554. 


Reconstruction 


433 


ways:    (1)  In  some  States,  by  the  union  of  all  the  whites,   The  over- 
rendered  desperate  by  the  evils  of  the  times  ;   (2)  by  induce-   the°carpet- 
ments  offered  to  negroes  to  remain  away  from  the  polls  ;  (3)    ba&  g°v- 
by  intimidation  and  violence;    (4)  by  various  sharp  prac 
tices  in  the  process  of  registration  and  voting,  including 
the  "  stuffing"  of  ballot  boxes. 

It  was  in  this  disturbed  period  of  transition  from  the 

rule  of  the  unfit  to  the  rule 
of  the  intelligent  voters  of  the 
reconstructed  States,  that  the 
Presidential  election  of  1872 
occurred.  Much  dissatisfac 
tion  had  arisen  during 
Grant's  administration. 
Grant,  depending  upon  the  The  elec- 
judgment  of  friends  and  pol- 
iticians,  had  made  many 
unwise  appointments  to 
office;  consequently,  scan 
dals  began  to  appear  in  the 
public  service.  The  Repub 
lican  policy  of  reconstruc 
tion  was  considered  a  fail 
ure;  both  the  abuses  of  the 
carpet-bag  regime  and  the 
outrages  of  the  Ku  Klux 

regulators  aroused  in  the  minds  of  many  the  demand  for  a 
change.  "General  amnesty"  was  advocated.  Congress, 
in  May,  1872,  passed,  by  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote,  a 
bill  granting  amnesty  to  all  but  a  limited  class  of  Southern 
ers,  \vho  were  about  750  in  number.  Many  persons  felt 
that  the  continuance  of  the  high  protective  tariff  was  an 
evil,  and  they  demanded  its  reduction. 

A  mass  convention  of  those  who  opposed  the  adminis 
tration  met  at  Cincinnati  and  organized  the  "Liberal 
Republican  party";  their  platform  demanded  the  aboli 
tion  of  the  Spoils  System  and  "the  immediate  and  abso- 


Horace  Greeley 


434  American  History 

Parties  and  lute  removal  of  all  disabilities  imposed  on  account  of  the 
Rebellion."  Being  divided  upon  the  question  of  tariff 
reform,  the  convention  made  no  declaration  of  policy,  but 
left  this  question  to  the  discretion  of  Congress.  Quite  un 
expectedly,  Horace  Greeley  was  nominated  as  a  candidate 
for  President.  The  Democratic  convention,  meeting  in 
July,  adopted  the  platform  of  the  Liberal  Republicans 
and  ratified  the  nomination  of  Greeley.  The  Republicans 
unanimously  and  with  great  enthusiasm  nominated  Pres 
ident  Grant  for  a  second  term. 

Horace  Greeley  failed  to  bring  about  the  serious  split  in  the  Repub- 

Greeley.  lican  ranks  that  the  reformers  had  worked  for,  and  also  failed 
to  arouse  enthusiasm  among  the  Democrats.  This  is  not 
strange  in  view  of  the  fact  that  throughout  his  career  he  had 
been  a  bitter  and  formidable  enemy  of  that  party.  He  had  been 
foremost  in  advocating  the  protective  tariff.  Furthermore, 
Greeley's  character  was  not  such  as  to  bring  serious  approval  of 
his  fitness  for  the  Presidential  office.  Of  undoubted  honesty, 
he  seemed  to  lack  consistency  and  firmness.  Men  called  him 
erratic,  and  his  personal  peculiarities  often  inspired  ridicule 
rather  than  respect. 

The  election  was  an  overwhelming  victory  for  Grant, 
who  carried  all  but  six  States.  Greeley,  shattered  in  health 
and  mourning  the  loss  of  his  wife,  was  seriously  affected 
by  his  defeat  and  died  shortly  after  the  election. 


SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  General  accounts.     Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  chap. 
11.     Elson,  Sidelights  on  American  History,  II,  chap.  7. 

2.  Lincoln's  plan  of  reconstruction.     Burgess,  Reconstruction 
and  the  Constitution,  8-20.     Lincoln,  Am.  St.  Series,  II,  217- 
231;  243-245.     Blaine,  Twenty  Years  in  Congress,  II,  34-39; 
46-50.     Stevens,    Am.    St.    Series,    229-243.     Hart,    Contem 
poraries,    IV,    No.    145.     Seward,    Am.    St.    Series,    396-406. 
Larned,  Ready  Reference,  United  States  1863  (December- July) ; 
1865  (April  11), 


Reconstruction  435 

3.  Early  life  and  character  of  Andrew  Johnson.     Elaine,  II, 
3-10.     McCulloch,  Men  and  Measures  of  Half  a  Century,  369- 
378. 

4.  Johnson's  plan  of  Reconstruction.    Burgess,  31-41.    Elaine, 
II,  76-83.    McCulloch,  378-386.     Stevens,  Am.  St.  Series,  244- 
255.     Seward,  Am.  St.  Series,  406-419.      Larned,  United  States 
1865  (May-July),  (July-December). 

5.  The  Black  Codes.     Burgess,  44-56.     Elaine,  II,  91-107. 
Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  151.     Stevens,  Am.  St.  Series, 
249-255. 

6.  The  Freedman's  Bureau.     Larned,   1865-1866.     Burgess, 
64-67;  87-90.     Elaine,  II,  162-172. 

7.  The    Reconstruction    Act    of    1867.     Burgess,     111-122. 
Larned,  United  States  1867,  March.     Stevens,  Am.  St.  Series, 
285-298.     Arguments  for    and  against  this  law  are  stated  in 
Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  Nos.  149,  150. 

8.  Speeches  made  by  President  Johnson.     Elaine,  II,  181-183; 
237-239.     Stevens,  Am.  St.  Series,  265-269;  280-284.     Burgess, 
67,  102.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  148. 

9.  The  impeachment.     Larned,  United  States  1868  (March- 
May).     Burgess,  172-177;   178-184;   190-194.     Elaine,  II,  363- 
375.  Am.  St.  Series:  Sumner,  346-351;  Stevens,  323-348;  Chase, 
357-361.    Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  154.  Elson,  Sidelights, 
II,  chap.  8. 

10.  Carpet-bag   governments.     Burgess,    244-246;     261-264; 
274-275.     Stevens,  298-308.     Andrews,  The  United  States   in 
Our   Own  Time,    113-130.     Hart,    Contemporaries,   IV,  No. 
157. 

11.  TheKuKluxKlan.     Burgess,  250-252 ;  257-261.  Larned, 
United    States    1866-1871.     Elaine,   II,  467-475.     Hart,   Con 
temporaries,  IV,  No.  156.     Andrews,  The  United  States  in  Our 
Own  Time,  36-40. 

12.  Charles    Sumner's    views    on    reconstruction.      Sumner, 
Am.  St.  Series,  217-220;  255-260.      On  negro  suffrage,  290-301. 
Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  146. 

13.  Election  of  1872.     Elaine,  II,  524;    531-533.     Andrews, 
The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Time,  68-78.     Linn,  Horace 
Greeley,  chap.  9.     Elson,  Sidelights,  II,  chap.  10.     Stanwood, 
History  of  Presidential  Elections,  276-301. 


436  American  History 

14.  For  readings  on  this  chapter,  see  James  and  Mann,  Read 
ings  in  American  History,  chap.  25. 

15.  Fiction  relating  to  the  reconstruction  period.     Tourgee., 
A  Fool's  Errand.     Page,  Red  Rock.     Harris,  Gabriel  Tolliver. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
DIPLOMACY,  FINANCE,  AND  POLITICS,  1865-1877 

IN  1867  Russia  ceded  to  the  United  States  the  possession  The  acqui- 
of  Alaska,  a  territory  of  nearly  600,000  square  miles,  then  Aiaska°f 
inhabited  by  a  few  natives  and  considered  of  doubtful 
value.     The  compensation  was  $7,200,000.     The  relations 
between  our  country  and  Russia  during  the  Civil  War, 
when  we  most  needed  friends  in  Europe,  had  been  cordial. 
Russia's  sale  of  Alaska  was  another  indication  of  this 
friendly   spirit,    combined,    possibly,    with   the   desire   to 
check  the  expansion  of  England. 

Another    important    diplomatic    victory   was    won    by  The  ap- 
Secretary  Seward  in  1867.     A  condition  of  civil  war  in  $^on 
Mexico  had  resulted  in  an  agreement  between  France,   Monroe 
Spain,  and  England  to  send  there  an  armed  force  for  the  jn°Mexico. 
protection  of  their  subjects  and  the  collection  of  debts. 
The  other  nations  soon  withdrawing,  France  pursued  this 
policy  alone;    and  Napoleon  III  gave  evidence  that  his 
intention  was,  in  reality,  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  in  order 
to  secure  commercial  advantages  and  prestige  at  home. 
He  caused  Archduke  Maximilian  of  Austria  to  be  elected 
Emperor  of  Mexico,  and  maintained  him  upon  the  throne 
by  force  of  French  arms.     Against  this  policy  the  United 
States  protested  vigorously,  but  nothing  further  could  be 
done  while  the  Civil  War  lasted.     At  its  close,  troops  were 
sent  to  the  Mexican  border,  and  Seward,  threatening  an 
invasion,  skifully  insisted    upon    the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  troops  from  Mexico.     This  was  finally  done  (1867). 

437 


43S 


American  History 


The 

Alabama 

claims. 


The  Treaty 
of  Wash 
ington, 
1871. 


Maximilian  was  left  to  his  fate,  and  was  captured  and  shot 
by  troops  of  the  Mexican  Republic.  Seward  followed  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  in  stating  the  right  of  the  Mexican  people 
to  determine  their  own  form  of  government,  and  that 
French  intervention  in 
Mexico  was  an  act  of 
hostility  to  the  United 
States. 

During  the  Civil  War 
the  English  Government 
refused  to  consider  the 
question  of  its  obliga 
tions  in  view  of  the  in 
juries  committed  by  the 
A  labama  and  other  Con 
federate  vessels  built  in 
English  ports.  There 
came  a  change  of  minis 
try,  however;  and  the  an 
ticipation  of  war  between 
France  and  Prussia,  in 
which  England  might  be 
come  involved,  made  that 
Government  desire  a 
more  definite  under 
standing  as  to  the  rights 

and  duties  of  neutral  nations.  It  would  be  extremely  dis 
astrous  to  British  commerce  if  either  France  or  Germany 
should  use  the  ports  of  the  United  States  as  the  Con 
federates  had  been  allowed  to  use  English  ports. 

As  the  result  of  skilful  diplomacy  on  the  part  of  Secretary 
of  State  Fish,  five  English  commissioners  were  appointed  to 
meet  at  Washington  with  five  representing  this  country. 
This  Joint  High  Commission  drew  up  the  Treaty  of 
Washington  (1871),  which  was  accepted  by  both  countries. 
The  treaty  expressed  "in  a  friendly  spirit  the  regret  felt  by 
Her  Majesty's  Government  for  the  escape,  under  whatever 


William  H.  Sewaid 


Diplomacy,  Finance,  and  Politics  439 

circumstances,  of  the  Alabama  and  other  vessels  from 
British  ports,  and  for  the  depredations  committed  by  those 
vessels."  It  provided  for  the  settlement  of  four  disputes 
between  England  and  the  United  States  by  the  process  of 
arbitration.  This  was  the  greatest  treaty  of  arbitration  the 
world  had  yet  seen. 

The  most  important  of  the  disputed  questions,  that  of  the    The  Ge- 
Alabama  claims,  was  submitted  to  five  arbitrators  selected  by    neva  Arbi- 
the  United  States,  England,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Brazil,  re-    tration- 
spectively.     For  their  guidance,  rules  concerning  the  obligations 
of  neutrals  were  agreed  upon,  their  substance  being  that  neutral 
nations  should  use  "due  diligence"  in  preventing  such  acts  as 
had  been  overlooked  by  the  English  Government,  in  the  case  of 
the  Confederate  cruisers.     The  Tribunal  of  Arbitration  met  at 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  and  decided  that  the  English  Government, 
having  failed  to  use  due  diligence,  should  pay  $15,500,000  to  the 
United   States  as  damages.     This  amount  was  to  be  used   to 
recompense  the  owners  of  vessels  and  cargoes  seized  and  de 
stroyed. 

The  other  disputes  involved  (1)  the  north-western  boundary 
between  Canada  and  the  United  States.  This  question  was 
submitted  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  decided  the  correct 
line  in  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  (2)  A  dispute  regarding  the  fisheries 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  was  settled  by  a  commission.  (3)  Another 
concerning  claims  made  by  citizens  of  both  countries  was  likewise 
disposed  of. 

Thus  the  principle  of  arbitration  and  the  peaceful  settlement 
of  disputes  between  nations  won  distinct  recognition. 

Industrially,   the   effects   of   the   Civil  War   upon   the  industrial 
country   were   nothing   less   than   revolutionary.     In   the  t^Civ^ 
revival  of  the  cotton  industry  at  the  South  there  was  a   War. 
complete  transfer  from  the  basis  of  slave  labor  to  that  of 
free  labor.     The  first  effort  toward  adjustment  was  made 
in  the  maintenance  of  large  plantations,  worked  by  gangs 
of  negro  wage-earners.    'This  proved  unsatisfactory.  Then 
the  large  estates  were  broken  up  into  small  tracts  rented 
on  shares  to  negroes.     Later,   negroes  were  able  to  ac 
quire  much  land  and  to  work  it  as  small  farms.     At  the 
same  time,  the  poor  whites,  now  able  to  compete  in  cotton 
raising,  bought  these  cheap  lands,  and  so  obtained  a  more 


440 


American  History 


Varied  in 
dustries  in 
the  South. 


Nothern 
manufact 
ures  stim 
ulated. 


The  war 
tariff  and 
its  reten 
tion. 


independent  status.  The  average  size  of  farms  in  the 
Southern  States  fell  from  335  acres  in  1860  to  214  acres  in 
1870,  and  153  acres  in  1880. 

The  belief  that  slave  labor  was  necessary  to  the  produc 
tion  of  cotton  proved  false.  By  the  year  1876  the  annual 
yield  equalled  that  of  1860,  and  since  that  date  there  has 
been  a  great  increase.  With  the  disappearance  of  slave 
labor,  moreover,  Southern  prejudice  against  other  indus 
tries  passed  away.  Crops  were  diversified;  Northern 
capital  found  use  in  the  exploitation  of  other  resources  of 
the  South.  Its  water-power  began  to  be  developed  and  its 
coal-fields  and  mineral  deposits  were  opened.  Various 
manufacturing  industries  began  to  rise.  Only  beginnings 
in  these  directions  were  made  before  1870;  later,  the  in 
dustrial  development  of  the  South  out  of  its  ante  bellum 
condition  into  "the  new  South"  of  diversified  industries 
became  rapid. 

In  the  North  the  industrial  consequences  of  the  Civil 
War  were  also  very  marked.  The  demand  for  manu 
factured  goods  to  supply  the  army  and  navy  gave  a  spur 
to  industries  of  all  kinds.  "An  official  report  in  1869  de 
clared  that  within  five  years  more  cotton  spindles  had  been 
put  in  motion,  more  iron  furnaces  erected,  more  iron 
smelted,  more  bars  rolled,  more  steel  made,  more  coal  and 
copper  mined,  more  lumber  sawn  and  hewn,  more  houses 
and  shops  constructed,  more  manufactories  of  different 
kinds  started,  and  more  petroleum  collected,  refined,  and 
exported,  than  during  any  equal  period  in  the  history  of 
our  country — and  that  this  increase  had  been  at  a  more 
rapid  rate  than  the  growth  of  population."  *  , 

The  high  tariff  on  imported  goods  also  stimulated  manu 
factures  greatly.  The  average  rate  of  duties  was  raised 
from  the  level  of  20  per  cent,  in  1860  to  37  per  cent,  in 
1862  and  47  per  cent,  in  1864.  The  chief  reasons  for  this 
advance  were  the  need  of  revenue  and  the  necessity  of 
protecting  our  industries,  which  were  now  subject  to  very 
*  Dewey,  Financial  History  of  the  United  States,  358. 


Diplomacy,  Finance,  and  Politics  441 

heavy  internal  taxation,  against  foreign  competition.  The 
new  rates  were  generally  looked  upon  as  temporary.  But 
when  efforts  were  made  after  the  war  to  reduce  the  rates 
there  were  protests  from  manufacturers.  The  internal 
revenue  taxes  were  repealed,  year  by  year,  as  Government 
expenditures  lessened.  The  import  duties  upon  articles, 
such  as  tea  and  coffee,  not  produced  in  this  country  were 
taken  off;  but  the  protective  duties  remained.  In  1872  a 
law  was  enacted  reducing  the  latter  uniformly  ten  per 
cent.;  but  the  commercial  crisis  of  1873  gave  rise  to 
the  demand  for  their  restoration  to  the  former  level, 
and  this  was  done  in  1875.  This,  then,  became  the 
basis  upon  which  our  protective  tariff  system  has  since 
rested. 

Another  indication  of  the  industrial  spirit  of  the  North  TheHome- 
during  the  Civil  War  is  the  Homestead  Act  of  1862.  The  fg^  ACt> 
policy  of  giving  Western  lands  free  to  settlers  had  been 
defeated,  pre.vious  to  1860,  by  the  Southern  delegation  in 
Congress.  It  was  now  adopted  as  a  means  of  developing 
the  economic  resources  of  the  North  and  making  it  more 
capable  of  sustaining  the  burden  of  the  war.  Any  head  of 
a  family  might  acquire  160  acres  of  land  by  residing  upon 
it  for  five  years.  This  law  stimulated  the  development  of 
the  West  and  helped  to  maintain  the  level  of  wages  in  the 
East  by  drawing  off  its  surplus  labor  population.  Immi 
gration  from  Europe,  which,  on  the  whole,  suffered  a  check 
during  the  war,  was  stimulated  by  the  Homestead  Act, 
and  later  rose  to  enormous  figures.  The  immigrants  were 
chiefly  Germans  and  Irish. 

It  was  in  accordance  with  the  same  policy  of  developing  The  Pacific 
Western  resources  that  Congress  (1862-1864)   voted  aid   railways- 
for  the  construction  of  the  Pacific  railways. 

Two  lines,  the  Union  Pacific,  built  westward  from  Omaha,  and    Reasons 
the  Central  Pacific,  eastward  from  San  Francisco,  were  given    forgovern- 
ten  square  miles  of  land  for  every  mile  of  track  laid.     Besides    r 
this,  the  Government  issued  Its  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $64,000,- 
000  in  aid  of  these  roads,  taking  only  a  second  mortgage  upon 


442 


American  History 


The  de 
cline  of  the 
merchant 
marine. 


Financial 

policies. 

Taxes. 


The  debt. 


the  property  as  security.  A  total  of  23,000,000  acres  was  granted 
— an  area  larger  than  the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  In  succeeding 
years,  still  larger  grants  were  made  to  the  Santa  Fe,  the  Northern 
Pacific,  the  Texas  Pacific,  and  the  Southern  Pacific  railroads. 
There  were  political  and  military  reasons,  also,  for  this  policy 
of  governmental  bounty.  The  people  of  the  Pacific  coast  would 
be  bound  by  stronger  ties  to  the  North;  the  movement  of  troops 
would  be  facilitated;  the  control  of  hostile  Indians  would  be 
made  easier;  public  lands  would  be  made  more  accessible  and 
more  valuable.  In  May,  1869,  the  first  transcontinental  rail 
road  was  completed,  when  the  two  construction  crews,  who  had 
been  working  from  opposite  directions,  met  at  Promontory 
Point,  Utah. 

In  the  midst  of  general  prosperity  at  the  North,  one  industry 
suffered  fatal  depression.  In  1860  sixty-six  per  cent,  of  the 
imports  and  exports  of  the  United  States  were  carried  in  vessels 
registered  under  our  laws;  in  1870,  only  one-half  as  much  was 
thus  carried,  and  the  decline  since  then  has  been  steady.  Scores 
of  vessels  had  been  destroyed  by  Confederate  cruisers;  others 
were  transferred  to  foreign  registry.  Iron  and  steel  had  super 
seded  wood  in  marine  construction,  and  the  United  States  could 
not  compete  with  foreign  countries  in  building  merchant  ships. 

The  Government  emerged  from  the  war  financially 
sound.  Policies  were  now  developed  upon  three  subjects 
— the  war  taxes,  the  debt,  and  the  legal  tenders.  (1)  It 
has  already  been  stated  (see  p.  441)  that  rapid  reductions 
were  made  in  the  internal  taxes  and  some  duties,  while  the 
protective  duties  remained  intact.  (2)  In  September,  1865, 
the  public  debt  was  $2,846,000,000  *— its  highest  point. 
The  policy  of  discharging  rapidly  this  enormous  debt  was 
entered  upon  at  once.  Indeed,  the  rapidity  and  ease  with 
which  the  reduction  was  accomplished  are  "without  prece 
dent  among  nations."  The  bonds,  certificates,  and  notes 
representing  the  debt  were  of  great  variety.  Under  Sec 
retary  of  the  Treasury  McCulloch,  the  demand  and  short- 
term  obligations  were  taken  up  and  new  interest-bearing 
bonds  were  given  in  exchange.  These  bore  5,  4£,  and  4 

*  From  this  subtract  $88,000,000  in  the  Treasury,  leaving  $2,758,000,- 
000.  Of  this  debt  the  legal  tenders  constituted  $433,000,000  and  the 
fractional  paper  currency  $26,000,000. 


Diplomacy,  Finance,  and  Politics  443 

per  cent,  interest  instead  of  the  7.3,  7,  and  6  per  cent,  rates  Refunding 
of  the  original  issues.  By  these  refunding  operations  the 
Government  saved  great  sums.  Such  were  the  stability 
and  resources  of  the  country  that  the  new  bonds  sold  at  a 
premium,  and  "long  before  they  matured  the  Government 
could  borrow  at  a  rate  as  low  as  2|  per  cent." 

The  question  arose,  should  the  bonds  not  specifically  payable 
in  coin  be  paid  in  greenbacks?  It  was  argued  that  the  Govern 
ment  had  received  depreciated  legal  tenders  for  its  bonds,  and 
that  therefore  their  payment  in  gold  would  be  unjust  to  tax 
payers.  But  as  the  legal  tenders  were  still  below  par  this  would 
mean  the  virtual  repudiation  of  a  part  of  the  debt,  as  it  could  not 
be  shown  that  such  payment  was  contemplated  when  the  bonds 
were  sold.  This  question  had  been  an  issue  in  the  election  of 
1868.  (See  pp.  429-430.)  The  Republican  victory  and  an  act 
of  Congress  in  1869  settled  the  policy  in  favor  of  coin  payment 
for  all  bonds. 

(3)  Though  the  legal  tenders  were  regarded  as  tern-  The 
porary,  when  issued,  their  retirement  was  most  difficult. 
During  the  war  the  monetary  situation  was  one  of  infla-  notes, 
tion,  i.  e.,  the  amount  of  money  was  in  excess  of  the  de 
mand  for  it  in  business.  Prices  were  therefore  high,  and 
all  business  was  conducted  upon  this  inflated  basis.  In 
1866  Congress  authorized  Secretary  McCulloch  to  redeem 
the  legal  tenders  in  limited  amounts  from  the  surplus 
revenues,  and  to  cancel  those  redeemed.  This  process  was 
continued  until  the  amount  outstanding  was  reduced  to 
$356,000,000,  when  it  was  stopped  by  an  act  of  Congress 
(1868),  responding  to  public  criticism  of  this  "contrac 
tion"  of  the  currency. 

The  question  was  debated,  should  the  United  States  retain    Arguments 
the  legal  tenders  as  a  permanent  money,  or  should  some  policy  of    over  the  re- 
" resumption    of    specie    payments"    be    enacted?     Those   who    tirementof 
opposed  the  retirement  of  the  greenbacks  emphasized  the  evils 
that  would  result  from  the  lower  prices  inevitably  following  con 
traction  of  the  currency;   the  manufacturers  and  merchants  who 
had  stocks  on  hand  would  suffer,  and  also  the  debtors,  including 
large  numbers  of  farmers  who  had  mortgaged  their  farms.     The 
extremists  of  this  belief  urged  further  issues  of  irredeemable 


444 


American  History 


Constitu- 


tenders. 


Causes  of 
the  crisis 
of  1873. 


paper  money  in  the  interest  of  lively  trade.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  evils  of  inflation  were  pointed  out;  the  uncertainty  as  to  the 
amount  of  currency  and  its  value  had  already  led  to  a  scandalous 
amount  of  speculation.  The  legal  tenders,  moreover,  were  a 
Government  obligation,  and  public  honor  demanded  the  fulfil 
ment  of  the  promise  to  pay.  The  policy  of  resuming  specie 
payments  was  supported  by  the  strongest  element  of  both 
parties,  but  the  manner  and  time  of  beginning  this  process 
could  not  be  settled  upon. 

Meanwhile,  the  Supreme  Court,  Chief  Justice  Chase  presiding, 
decided  (1869)  that  Congress  had  exceeded  its  powers  in  giving 
the  legal  tender  quality  to  the  United  States  notes  and  that 
for  contracts  made  before  their  issuance  these  notes  need  not 
be  accepted.  In  1872,  however,  the  court  having  in  the  meantime 
been  changed  by  the  succession  of  two  new  members,  a  decision 
was  made  upholding  the  constitutionality  of  the  legal  tenders 
as  a  war  measure. 

The  crisis  of  1873  was  the  outcome  of  the  monetary 
situation  and  the  great  industrial  activity  of  this  period. 
The  high  prices  had  stimulated  production  until  there  was 
overproduction  and  a  glut  of  the  market,  Investment  ran 
into  speculation,  and  the  resources  of  individuals  and 
corporations  became  tied  up  in  unprofitable  enterprises. 
This  was  especially  true  in  railroad  construction.  Imme 
diately  after  the  war,  rapid  progress  was  made  in  the  set 
tlement  of  the  central  West  and  of  California.  Wheat- 
growing,  especially,  increased  greatly.  The  development 
of  these  new  fields  gave  an  impetus  to  the  building  of 
railroads.  Between  1868  and  1873,  28,000  miles  were 
built — more  than  the  total  mileage  of  the  country  in 
1859.  This  was  greatly  in  excess  of  the  growth  and 
needs  of  the  country,  and  the  returns  were  consequently 
inadequate.  It  is  apparent  that  both  the  paper  money, 
upon  the  basis  of  which  people  estimated  values,  and  in 
dustrial  securities  (bonds,  mortgages,  etc.)  represented 
fictitious  rather  than  real  values.  Such  a  condition  could 
not  long  continue.  When  the  demand  came  for  the  set 
tlement  of  debts,  for  the  payment  of  interest  on  invest 
ments,  for  the  payment  of  specie  at  banks,  the  false  valua- 


Diplomacy,  Finance,  and  Politics  445 

tion  was  revealed  and  failures  resulted.  In  September, 
1873,  there  was  a  stringency  in  the  money  market  in 
New  York  and  the  reserves  of  the  banks  were  very 
low.  Upon  the  appearance  of  a  " scare,"  depositors  de 
manded  their  money  and  banks  were  obliged  to  refuse 
payment.  The  panic  ensued.  There  were  5,000  bank 
ruptcies  in  1873,  and  by  1878  the  number  was  twice 
as  large,  Business  stagnation  ensued  and  the  greatest 
burden  fell  upon  the  poor,  for  whom  idle  industries  gave 
no  employment. 

Immediately  following  the  panic  came  a  renewal  of  the  The"infla- 
demand    for    "more    money."     Consequently,    Congress   l 
passed  (1874)  a  bill  increasing  the  amount  of  legal  tender 
notes.     President  Grant  vetoed  this   bill  on  the  ground 
that   prosperity   could   not  permanently   result   from   an 
artificial  inflation  of  the  money  supply. 

In  1875  Congress  gave  tardy  expression  to  the  policy  Resump- 
of  resumption.     It  was  enacted  that  on  January  1,  1879,   ^^ 
the  Government  would  redeem  the  legal  tenders  at  par  in  payments. 
coin;   to  provide  specie  for  this  purpose,  bonds  might  be 
issued  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.     When  the  date 
thus  fixed  arrived,  the  notes  were  equal  in  value  to  gold. 
A  reserve  of  considerably  more  than  $100,000,000  was  in 
the  Treasury  for  their  redemption.     The  people,  however, 
called  for  the  redemption  of  but  few  notes. 

The  overwhelming  victory  of  the  Republicans  in  the  Grant's 
election  of  1872  (see  pp.  433-434)  was  offset  by  reverses 
met  during  Grant's  second  administration.  The  party  in 
power  during  a  financial  crisis  usually  receives  unmerited 
blame  for  the  "hard  times"  that  follow.  On  the  score  of 
official  corruption,  however,  the  party  was  justly  criticised. 
The  evils  of  the  spoils  system  had  led  to  the  enactment  of 
a  law  (1871)  providing  for  a  civil-service  examination 
system.  The  foremost  agitator  in  this  cause  was  George 
William  Curtis,  and  he  was  appointed  by  Grant  chairman 
of  a  commission  to  administer  the  new  law.  There  was 
opposition  to  the  reform,  however,  and  in  1875  Congress 


446 


American  History 


Evidences 
of  corrup 
tion. 


The  cam 
paign  of 
1876. 


refused  further  appropriations  and  the  system  was  aban 
doned  for  the  time. 

Investigations  disclosed  the  fact  that  a  corporation 
called  the  Credit  Mobilier,  engaged  in  constructing  the 
Pacific  railroads,  had  sought  to  influence  Congressmen 
by  selling  to  them  shares  of  its  stock  below  market  value. 
Collectors  of  internal  rev 
enue  taxes  upon  whiskey 
were  found,  upon  investi- 
g  a  t  i  o  n  s  prosecuted  by 
Secretary  of  the  Treas 
ury  Bristow,  to  be  de 
frauding  the  Government 
of  millions  of  dollars. 
A  member  of  the  Cabinet, 
Secretary  of  WarBelknap, 
was  found  to  be  involved 
in  frauds  connected  with 
the  letting  of  contracts  in 
his  department.  President 
Grant's  personal  honesty, 
it  appears,  was  combined 
with  great  incapacity  for 
judging  the  quality  of  his 
subordinates. 

This  official  corruption  gave  the  Democrats  the  oppor 
tunity  to  make  reform  the  leading  issue  of  the  campaign  of 
1876.  For  their  leader  they  selected  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  an 
eminent  lawyer,  formerly  Governor  of  New  York.  He  was 
prominent  at  this  time  through  his  work  in  prosecuting  suc 
cessfully  the  leaders  of  the  infamous  "Tweed  ring,"  which 
had  robbed  the  city  of  New  York  of  some  $100,000,000. 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  was  nominated  as 
candidate  for  Vice-President. 

For  their  candidate  the  Republicans  turned  from  their 
prominent  leaders,  James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  Oliver  P. 
Morton,  of  Indiana,  and  Roscoe  Conkling,  of  New  York, 


Samuel  J.  Tilden 


Diplomacy,  Finance,  and  Politics 


447 


and  nominated  a  "dark  horse,"  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  a 
man  of  considerable  experience,  thrice  Governor  of  Ohio. 
William  H.  Wheeler,  of  New  York,  was  the  candidate  for 
Vice-President. 

In  response  to  the  Democratic  cry  for  reform,  the  Repub-   issues  of 
licans  dwelt  upon  the  issue  of  Southern  political  conditions,    tioene  e 
the  suppression  of  the  negro  vote,  and  the  Civil  War  record 
of  their  opponents.*     The  parties  differed  flatly  on  the 


% 


~~1'\  """•  I      I  ^z& 


r      !  Democratic  18k 
f~~]  Disputed 


Election  Map  of  1876 

tariff  question,  but  upon  resumption  the  issue  was  con 
fused:  the  Republicans  indorsed  the  law  of  1875,  while 
the  Democrats  demanded  its  repeal  without  denouncing 
resumption.  The  contest  was  close  for  the  first  time 
since  1860.  The  Democrats  carried  all  the  doubtful 
Northern  States  (New  York,  Indiana,  New  Jersey,  and 

*  This  appeal  to  the  prejudices  of  war  times  was  called  "  waving  the 
bloody  shirt."  It  helped  to  solidify  the  Democratic  white  vote  in  the 
South  and  to  prevent  secession  from  Republican  ranks  in  the  North. 


448 


American  History 


Disputed 

election 

returns. 


The 

Electoral 
Commis 
sion. 


Connecticut)  and  claimed  all  of  the  Southern  States, 
though  their  victory  was  disputed  in  Louisiana,  Florida, 
and  South  Carolina. 

In  these  three  States  the  carpet-bag  governments  were  still 
in  power,  and  the  officers  who  canvassed  the  election  returns 
(returning  boards)  were  Republicans.  They  decided  that  there 

was  evidence  of  fraud  and  intimida 
tion  sufficient  to  justify  the  rejec 
tion  of  votes  in  certain  districts,  and 
that  the  Hayes  electors  were  elected. 
Other  officers  in  those  States,  and  in 
Oregon,  where  a  question  as  to  the 
qualifications  of  a  Republican 
elector  had  arisen,  reported  that 
Democratic  electors  had  been 
chosen.  In  each  of  these  four  States, 
then,  two  groups  of  electors  met 
and  voted  for  President,  and  double 
returns  were  sent  to  the  President 
of  the  Senate  to  be  counted. 

In  Congress,  a  rule  in  operation 
since  1865  that  the  electoral  vote  of 
any  state  should  not  be  counted  if 
either  House  objected,  could  not 
be  reenacted  because  the  House 
was  Democratic  and  the  Senate 


Rutherford  B.  Hayes 


Republican.  Tilden  had  184  undisputed  votes,  and  the  count 
ing  of  one  vote  from  the  States  in  dispute  would  make  him 
President.  On  the  other  hand,  it  required  all  the  votes  from 
those  States  to  give  Hayes  a  majority. 

No  method  being  provided  by  the  Constitution  or  by  law  to  settle 
the  question,  which  of  the  disputed  votes  should  be  counted,  the 
two  Houses  finally  agreed  upon  an  extra-Constitutional  process. 
An  Electoral  Commission  was  established,  consisting  of  five  Sena 
tors  (three  Republicans  and  two  Democrats),  five  Representatives 
(three  Democrats  and  two  Republicans),  and  five  Justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court  (two  of  each  party,  the  fifth  to  be  chosen  by  these 
four).  The  fifth  Justice  selected  was  Mr.  Bradley,  a  Republican, 
and  the  Commission  decided  by  a  strict  party  vote  of  eight  to 
seven  that  it  would  accept  the  returns  sent  by  the  returning 
boards  in  the  disputed  States,  without  examining  into  the  merits 
of  their  decisions.  This  gave  the  majority  to  Hayes. 

The  excitement  and  bitterness  aroused  by  this  contest  sub 
sided  with  remarkable  ease,  and  the  country  once  more  demon- 


Diplomacy,  Finance,  and  Politics  449 

strated  its  respect  for  the  decisions  of  constituted  authorities, 
regardless  of  personal  feeling. 

President  Hayes  displayed  an  admirable  quality  in  his  The 
firm  stand  against  political  corruption;    he  forbade  the  present 
practice  of  assessing  Government  employees  for  political  Hayes, 
purposes,  and  aimed  to  make  fitness  a  test  in  his  appoint 
ments.     He  disappointed  a  large  number  in  his  party  by 
withdrawing  from  Southern  States  the  Federal  troops  hith 
erto  maintained  there  to  secure  fair  elections  (see  p.  432) . 
This  policy  removed  the  last  obstacle  in  the  way  of  negro 
disfranchisement,    and   had   the   effect   of   removing  the 
Southern  question  from  politics.     This  administration  was 
not   marked   by   important   party   legislation,    since   the 
Democrats  controlled  either  one  or  both  Houses  of  Con 
gress.     They  tried  to  enact  Democratic  measures  by  fixing 
them  as  "riders"  upon  urgent  appropriation  bills.     These 
were  vetoed  by  Hayes. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  The  Geneva  Arbitration.     Charles  Francis  Adams,  Am.  St. 
Series  380-397.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  175.     Andrews, 
The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Time,  87-95. 

2.  Senator  Sumner  on  the  purchase  of  Alaska.     Hart,  Con 
temporaries,  IV,  No.  174. 

3.  The  industrial  effects  of  the  Civil  War.     Wright,  Industrial 
Evolution  of  the  United  States,  152-158, 188.     Bogart,  Economic 
History  of  the  United  States,  266-267,  419. 

4.  Why  was  not  the  tariff  reduced  after  the  war?     Taussig, 
Tariff  History  of  the  United  States,  171-178. 

5.  What  were  the  arguments  for  and  against  contraction  of  the 
currency  ?     Dewey,  Financial  History  of  the  United  States,  335- 
339.     For  and  against  payment  of  the  bonds  in  currency,  344— 
349.    The  history  of  resumption,  372-378.     See  also,  Andrews, 
263-267. 

6.  The  panic  of  1873.    Andrews,  253-263.     Lamed,  History 
for  Ready  Reference,  United  States,  A.D.  1873. 

7.  The  transcontinental  railways  and    the    Credit    Mobilier 
Company.     Andrews,  103-109. 


450  American  History 

8.  The  elections  of   1872   and    1876  are   treated   in  Wilson, 
Division  and  Reunion,  281-287.     The  disputed  election  of  1876, 
in  Andrews,  205-221.     Lamed,  Ready  Reference,  United  States, 
187&-1877.     Government  in  State  and  Nation,  261-262. 

9.  For  the  history  of  the  legal  tenders  and  resumption,  see 
Government  in  State  and  Nation,  212-214. 

10.  For  the  topics  in  this  chapter,  see   James  and  Mann, 
Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  26. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CHANGES 

1866-1886 

THE  industrial  activity  that  followed  the  Civil  War  industrial 
(see  p.  439)  was  accompanied  by  changes  that  constitute  l^ots™ 
almost    another  industrial   revolution.     The  progress   of  gfter  the 
invention  that  had  been  somewhat  checked  by  the  Civil 
War  now  proceeded  with  renewed  vigor.     New  machinery 
and   new   processes   multiplied   rapidly.     The   most  im 
portant  of  these  were  the  Bessemer  process  of  converting 
iron  into  steel,   first  used  extensively  in   1867,   and  the 
Siemens-Martin,  or  open-hearth  method  of  1869.     Coke 
was  substituted  for  coal  in  the  reduction  of  the  ore.     The 
great  activity  in  railroad  construction  (see  p.  444)  stimu 
lated  this  industry,  and  the  substitution  of  steel  for  iron  rails 
made  possible  larger  and  more  efficient  rolling  stock. 

At  this  time  the  opening  of  the  great  iron  deposits  of  upper  steel  man- 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  together  with  the  cheaper  proc- 
esses,  facilitated  the  substitution  of  steel  for  iron  in  all  in 
dustries — the  "age  of  steel"  began.  The  manufacture  of 
steel  advanced  westward,  the  ports  of  the  Great  Lakes  being 
convenient  meeting  points  for  the  iron  from  the  north  and 
the  bituminous  coal  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. 

This  period  saw  the  development  of  the  petroleum  in 
dustry  to  vast  proportions.  The  copper  mines  of  Michi 
gan  and  the  silver  mines  of  Colorado  yielded  abundantly. 
The  applications  of  electricity  (in  electroplating,  electro- 
typing,  etc.)  began  to  assume  importance. 

451 


452 


American  History 


The  in 
creased 
use  of 
machinery. 


Corpora 
tions  and 
large-scale 
produc 
tion. 


This  was  also  the  age  of  machinery  in  a  sense  hitherto  un 
realized;  in  every  manufacturing  process,  machines  superseded 
hand  labor.  In  the  manufacture  of  flour  nearly  three-fifths  of 
the  laborers  were  displaced  by  machinery;  in  furniture  factories, 
nearly  three-fourths;  in  metal  goods  industries,  one-third;  in 
the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  four-fifths;  and  in  cotton 
factories,  one-half.  Yet  so  great  was  the  demand  for  the  goods 
that  were  thus  being  produced  more  cheaply  *  and  so  numerous 
were  the  new  lines  of  manufacture  opened,  that  labor  found 
abundant  employment.  In  fact,  the  number  of  persons  em 
ployed  in  productive  industries  increased  at  a  faster  rate  than 
did  the  total  population. 

These  great  changes  in  mechanical  methods  necessi 
tated  changes  in  business  methods  that  were  no  less  im 
portant.  The  extensive  use  of  machinery  led  to  manufactur 
ing  on  a  large  scale.  Manufacturers  then  handled  larger 
stocks  of  raw  materials  and  of  finished  products,  and  this 
necessitated  an  increase  of  capital.  This  was  in  turn  ef 
fected  by  the  organization  of  corporations.  In  the  com 
petition  between  large  establishments  owned  by  corpor 
ations  and  smaller  ones,  the  former  had  the  advantage; 
for  in  various  ways  large-scale  production  is  more  eco 
nomical  than  that  conducted  upon  a  small  scale.  Hence 
there  was  a  decided  movement  toward  the  concentration 
of  industry.  The  earnings  from  large-scale  production 
were  turned  back  into  the  channels  of  industry,  and  new 
fields  were  exploited.  In  numerous  instances  great  fort 
unes  were  rapidly  accumulated. 

There  now  appeared  more  distinctly  than  ever  before 
the  separation  of  the  employer,  or  capitalist,  class  from 
the  laboring  class. 

In  large  establishments  the  intimate  relations  between  em 
ployers  and  employees  cannot  exist.  The  latter  lose  their  indi 
viduality  and  to  a  great  extent  their  independence,  as  the  extreme 
division  of  labor  involves  greater  routine  in  processes.  The 
corporation  deals  in  a  less  human  way  with  its  employees,  and  its 
directors  frequently  sanction  practices  for  which  an  individual 

*  The  per  capita  consumption  of  iron  rose  from  105  Ibs.  in  1870  to 
204  Ibs.  in  1880.  Wright,  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States,  323. 


Industrial  and  Social  Changes  453 

employer  would  not  wish  to  assume  the  responsibility.     More-  Effects 
over,  the  growth  of  large  production  favored  the  concentration    that  fol- 
of  population  in  large  cities.*     Here  conditions  of  life  were  less 
pleasant  and  the  employment  of  women  and  children  in  factories    tion  of  in- 
increased    rapidly.     Under   these    conditions   the    contrast   be-    dustry. 
tween  the  rich  and  the  poor  became  more  apparent;  the  sharp 
business  methods  and  the  profligacy  exhibited  by  some  of  the 
"newly  rich"  aroused  bitterness  and  hatred  in  the  hearts  of  the 
mass  of  laborers.     Sometimes  attempts  were  made  by  corpor 
ations  to  conceal  their  great   profits  by  stock-watering.     Small 
stock-holders  in   corporations  were  frequently  cheated  by  the 
juggling  of  accounts;  and  corporations  were  bankrupted  by  stock 
manipulators  for  their  own  profit.     Such  were  some  of  the  evils 
that  accompanied  the  great  changes  in  business  organization. 

Before  the  Civil  War  a  movement  had  begun  for  the  The  growth 
organization  of  laborers  corresponding  to  the  organiza-  u^ 
tion  of  capitalists  into  corporations.  Local  labor  unions 
were  numerous,  and  some  twenty-six  national  unions  ex 
isted  in  1860.  The  industrial  changes  mentioned  above 
were  extremely  favorable  to  the  progress  of  this  move 
ment,  and  new  organizations  were  now  rapidly  formed,  f 
Many  trades-union  newspapers  were  established  at  this 
time.  Notable  among  the  unions  was  the  Knights  of 
Labor,  which  combined  in  its  membership  workers  of  all 
industries,  numbering  in  1886  about  500,000.  The  Ameri 
can  Federation  of  Labor,  founded  in  1881,  was  intended 
to  centralize  the  control  of  this  movement  by  affiliating  a 
large  number  of  unions  under  one  national  management. 

The  labor  movement  grew  out  of  a  general  feeling  of  discontent 
with  the  new  industrial  conditions.  The  purposes  of  the  unions 
may  be  summarized  as  follows:  (1)  The  distribution  of  sick  and 
death  benefits.  (2)  The  fostering  of  a  spirit  of  cooperation 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  p.  34,  for  statistics  of  urban 
growth. 

t  Unions  were  formed  in  the  following  occupations:  railroad  engineers 
(1863),  cigar-makers  (1864),  bricklayers  and  masons  (1865),  railroad  con 
ductors  (1868),  furniture  workers  (1873),  locomotive  firemen  (1874),  iron 
and  steel  workers  (1876),  granite  cutters  (1877),  carpenters  and  joiners 
(1881),  railroad  brakemen  (1884),  coal-miners  (1885).  Both  national 
and  international  organizations  were  founded  in  many  trades. 


454  American  History 

among  working  men.  (3)  The  spread  of  educational  influences, 
through  meetings,  papers,  and  discussions.  (4)  Common  action 
looking  toward  the  increase  of  wages,  based  upon  the  feeling  that 
labor  was  not  receiving  its  proportionate  share  of  the  profits 
arising  from  mechanical  improvements.  (5)  A  movement  for 
shorter  hours  of  work.  (6)  A  demand  for  legislation  insuring 
the  safety  and  comfort  of  laborers,  and  the  protection  of 
women  and  children. 

What  Themselves  an  evidence  of  growing  intelligence  among 

unions          the  working  classes,  the  unions  have  had  an  educating  and 

have  ac-       uplifting  influence.     Their  demand  for  the  scientific  in- 

com- 

plished.        vestigation  of  labor  conditions  by  the  government  resulted 

in  the  State  Labor  Bureaus  (first  in  Massachusetts,  1869) 
and  the  National  Bureau  of  Labor  (1884).  Their  demand 
for  labor  legislation  resulted  in  a  multitude  of  beneficent 
laws.*  The  hours  of  labor  for  women  and  children  have 
been  restricted  (first  in  Massachusetts  to  ten  hours  a  day, 
1874).  Since  1870  the  unions  have  emphasized  their  de 
mands  for  a  uniform  eight-hour  day  for  all  employees. 
The  first  For  securing  higher  wages  and  shorter  hours  labor 

strikes.  unions  depended  to  some  extent  upon  strikes  and  "boy 
cotts,"  sometimes  accompanied  by  violence.  In  the 
early  years  of  this  period,  these  were  seldom  successful. 
In  1877  the  employees  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Rail 
road  struck  against  a  ten-per-cent.  reduction  of  wages;  em 
ployees  of  the  Pennsylvania  system,  with  other  grievances, 
followed  this  example.  Sympathetic  strikes  on  other  roads 
and  in  other  industries  soon  involved  100,000  employees. 
There  ensued  much  violence,  with  the  destruction  of 
property  and  loss  of  life,  especially  at  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

These  events  startled  the  public  and  directed  attention 
to  the  labor  problem.  In  1883  there  was  an  extensive 
strike  among  the  telegraphers  of  the  country,  and  two 
years  later  another  occurred  among  the  employees  of 
the  Gould  system  of  railroads  in  the  south-western  States. 
In  1886  there  was  great  unrest  among  the  laboring  classes 

*  For  a  list  of  these  laws  see  Wright,  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United 
States,  291-292;  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  107-110. 


Industrial  and  Social  Changes  455 

in  Chicago.  During  the  course  of  a  strike  at  the  McCor-  The  Chi- 
rnick  reaper  works,  workmen  used  violent  methods  and  cago  an- 
several  were  shot  by  police.  These  conditions  culminated 
in  the  throwing  of  a  bomb  at  a  public  gathering  in  Hay- 
market  Square.  Several  policemen  were  killed  and  others 
were  wounded.  The  act  was  regarded  as  the  outcome  of 
the  teachings  promulgated  by  certain  anarchists  who  ad 
vised  resistance  to  government  authority.  Four  of  these 
were  hanged.  Several  years  later,  Governor  Altgeld  of 
Illinois  pardoned  three  others,  then  in  the  penitentiary, 
on  the  ground  that  they  had  not  had  a  fair  trial. 

Business  depression  continued  for  some  years  after  the  The  growth 
panic  of  1873.  The  movement  of  population  into  the  tra^West1" 
central  West  was  very  rapid.*  The  production  of  wheat, 
corn,  and  other  agricultural  products  increased  apace. 
This  fact,  together  with  the  lower  cost  of  production,  due 
to  the  use  of  improved  farm  machinery,  and  the  lower 
cost  of  transportation,  tended  to  cause  decreasing  prices 
for  farm  products.  Thousands  of  farmers  who  had  hope 
fully  mortgaged  their  farms  now  found  the  interest  burden 
growing  heavier,  and  a  spirit  of  discontent  reigned  through 
out  the  agricultural  \Yest  and  South. 

There  were  real  grievances,  also,  felt  by  the  farmers  in   Railroad 
the  methods   employed  by  railroads.     Freight  rates   on  ^"ses  and 
goods  carried  to  cities  where  several  lines  were  compet-  Granger 
ing  for  business,  were,  naturally,  low;  while  high  rates 
were  exacted  at  intermediate  points  where  there  was  no 
competition.     There    arose    a    movement    (organized    in 
1867)  among  farmers,  similar  to  that  among  factory  em 
ployees.     Local  organizations,   known  as  "granges,"  in 
cluded  by  1875  1,500,000  members.     These  were  organ 
ized  into  State  and    national  systems   under  the    name 
''Patrons    of    Husbandry."     Their    purpose    was    partly 
educational,   but  chiefly  they  aimed  to  compel,   by  the 

*  Between  1870  and  1880  population  here  increased  as  follows:  Minne 
sota,  77  per  cent.;  Iowa,  36  per  cent.;  Dakota  Ter.,  853  per  cent.;  Kansas, 
173  per  cent.;  Nebraska,  267  per  cent. 


456 


American  History 


European 
immigra 
tion. 


The 
Chinese 
on  the 
Pacific 
Coast. 


The 

Greenback 

party. 


force  of  public  opinion,  legislation  against  abuses  com 
mitted  by  railroads  and  other  corporations.  These  organ 
izations  also  assisted  in  the  establishment  of  agricultural 
colleges  and  founded  cooperative  buying  and  selling 
agencies. 

In  several  Western  States  (Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Iowa, 
and  Minnesota)  laws  were  enacted  (1871-1874)  prescrib 
ing  maximum  rates  and  establishing  railroad  commissions 
empowered  to  enforce  these  and  other  restrictive  laws. 
The  railroad  managers  fought  bitterly  against  this  legis 
lation,  arguing  that  theirs  was  a  private  business  which 
the  States  could  not  control.  The  opposite  contention, 
that,  as  corporations  deriving  their  charters  from  the  pub 
lic,  and  as  common  carriers*  performing  public  service, 
the  railroads  were  subject  to  public  control,  was  sus 
tained  by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  1877. 

One  of  the  causes  for  the  discontent  of  the  laboring 
classes  in  these  years  was  the  severe  competition  arising 
from  the  immigration  of  European  laborers.  These 
numbered,  for  the  decade  1870-1880,  2,261,000,  chiefly 
German  (700,000),  English  (460,000),  Irish  (436,000) 
and  Scandinavian  (211,000).  During  the  next  decade 
(1880-1890)  the  total  number  of  European  immigrants 
was  more  than  doubled  (4,721,000). 

The  coming  of  large  numbers  of  Chinese  to  the  Pacific 
Coast  was  the  cause  of  turbulent  demonstrations  against 
them;  their  cheap  manner  of  life,  low  wages,  and  their 
habit  of  returning  home  with  their  earnings,  all  added  fuel 
to  the  flames  of  race  hatred.  In  obedience  to  popular 
demand,  Congress  enacted  a  law  (1882)  excluding  the 
Chinese  laboring  class  from  this  country  for  a  period  of 
ten  years. 

During  the  period  of  business  stagnation  that  followed 
the  crisis  of  1873,  there  arose  a  demand  for  "more  money." 
A  "Greenback"  party  was  formed  in  1876  with  a  Presi 
dential  candidate,  Peter  Cooper,  who  received,  however, 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  100-101. 


Industrial  and  Social  Changes  457 

but  80,000  votes.     Two  years  later  the  Congressional  can 
didates  of  this  party  polled  over  1,000,000  votes. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  the  Greenback  party  was  a  denial 
of  the  doctrine  that  money  owes  its  value  and  acceptability  to 
the  intrinsic  value  of  the  material  from  which  it  is  made.  They 
contended  that  this  is  determined  solely  by  the  quantity  of  money 
in  comparison  with  the  business  demand  for  it.  It  was  argued 
that  the  government  stamp,  and  that  alone,  gave  value  to  any 
thing  that  was  made  money  by  law.  The  government  should 
therefore  issue  as  much  "fiat"  paper  money  as  business  required, 
making  no  provision  for  its  redemption,  but  allowing  it  to  be 
convertible  into  government  bonds  bearing  interest.  This  party 
denounced  resumption,  National  banks,  and  the  payment  of 
bonds  in  specie.  There  were  many  men  in  both  of  the  old 
parties  who  were  either  favorable  to  its  views  or  afraid,  for  po 
litical  reasons,  to  oppose  them. 

While  refusing  to  repeal  the  resumption  act  of  1875  The  re- 
(see  p.  445)  Congress  took  another  step  opposed  to  con- 
traction,  in  1878,  when  it  decreed  that  after  the  commence- 
ment  of  resumption  (1879)  none  of  the  legal  tender  notes  reissuance 
that  were  redeemed  should  be  destroyed,   but  that  all  ^theed 
should  be  reissued  in  the  ordinary  course  of  business,   states 
Thus  the  total  amount  of  these  notes  remained  constant  n 
($346,000,000).     Business   conditions,  giving  the  United 
States  a  favorable  balance  of  trade  against  Europe,  en 
abled  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  John  Sherman,  to 
accumulate  gold  for  the  resumption  fund ;  but  no  provision 
was  made  in  anticipation  of  the  troublous  times  when  this 
could  not  be  done  (see  p.  481). 

The  history  of  silver  legislation  in  this  period  is  closely  The  de- 
related  to  the  events  above  described.     For  many  years  JtonMof  stt* 
previous  to  1873,  gold  production  was  in  excess  of  silver  pro-  ver  in 
duction,  and  very  little  silver  bullion  was  brought  to  the 
mints  for  coinage.     Silver  dollars  were  exported,  and  were 
seldom  seen  in  circulation.     Public  attention  was  there 
fore  only  slightly  attracted  to  the  law  of  1873  revising  the 
coinage  regulations  and  omitting  the  silver  dollar  from 
the  list  of  coins.     Soon  after  this,  silver  production  rap- 


458 


American  History 


The  free- 
silver 
move 
ment. 


A  mone 
tary 
com 
promise. 


idly  increased,  especially  from  newly  discovered  deposits 
in   Colorado.* 

The  bullion  value  of  the  silver  dollar  was  102  cents  in 
1872;  but  by  1875  it  had  fallen  to  about  96  cents,  and  this 
tendency  continued.  In  consequence,  a  demand  arose 
in  the  silver  producing  States  of  the  West  for  the  return 
to  the  policy  of  free  silver  coinage  f  that  had  prevailed 
from  the  beginning  of  our  government  until  1873.  This 
demand  grew  in  intensity  as  the  value  of  silver  bullion 
declined,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  Greenback  party 
threw  their  influence  in  the  same  direction,  since  free  coin 
age  would  mean  expansion  of  the  money  supply.  The 
strength  of  the  movement  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in 
1876  and  1877  the  House  of  Representatives  passed  bills 
for  the  free  coinage  of  silver. 

The  free-silver  movement  gained  great  strength  in  the  agricult 
ural  sections  of  the  West  and  South,  where  there  was  a  condition 
of  business  depression  (see  p.  455),  as  well  as  in  the  silver- 
mining  States.  This  depression  was  due,  it  was  claimed,  to 
contraction  of  the  currency.  The  decline  of  prices  and  the  de 
monetization  t  of  silver  were  cited  as  proofs  that  there  was  con 
traction.  The  restoration  of  silver  to  its  former  place  as  a  money 
metal,  would,  it  was  claimed,  raise  its  value,  increase  the  amount 
of  money  in  circulation,  restore  the  former  level  of  prices,  and 
bring  as  a  result  greater  business  activity. 

Free-silver  advocates  of  more  moderate  views  believed 
that  an  international  agreement  should  be  made  before 
entering  upon  that  policy.  These  men  united  with  those 

*  Product  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  United  States  in  millions  of  dollars. 


GOLD 

1861 $43  mil. 

1865 53     " 

1870 50     " 

1871 44     " 

1872. .  .   36     " 


SILVER  GOLD  SILVER 

$2  mil.     1873 $36  mil.  $36  mil. 

12     "        1874 34  37 

17     "        1875 33  31 

24     "        1876 40  35 

29     "        1877 47  37 

1878 51  40 

t  Free  coinage  of  any  metal  exists  when  any  person  may  bring  bullion 
to  the  mint  and  have  it  coined;  the  government  undertakes  to  coin  all 
that  is  brought.  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  207-208. 

t  I.  e.,  the  stoppage  of  free  coinage  in  1873  by  the  United  States  and, 
at  about  the  same  time,  by  several  European  countries. 


Industrial  and  Social  Changes  459 

who  stood  for  the  single  gold  standard  in  the  enactment 
of  a  compromise  law — the  Bland-Allison  act  of  1878. 
This  law  authorized  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to 
purchase  monthly  from  $2,000,000  to  $4,000,000  worth 
of  silver  bullion  and  to  coin  it  into  silver  dollars  of  the 
standard  weight  (412.5  grains),  which  were  to  be  full  legal 
tender.*  Under  this  law  $378,000,000  were  coined,  but 
silver  bullion  continued  to  decline  in  value,  and,  another 
period  of  business  depression  occurring  in  1882-1884,  the 
demand  for  free-silver  coinage  continued. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Wright,  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States,  has  the 
following  topics:  The  tendency  to  concentration  in  the  iron  and 
steel  industries,  176-179.     Labor  organizations,  chaps.  19,  20. 
Strikes  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Gould  railroads,  301-309. 

2.  Andrews,  The  United  States  in   Our  Own  Time.     The 
Greenback  party,  274-275,  290-291.     The  Granger  movement, 
281-282.     Labor  movement,  285-293.    The  Chicago  anarchists, 
530-535.     Chinese  immigration,  356-381.     Euorpean  immigra 
tion,  707-714. 

3.  Dewey,  Financial  History  of  the  United  States,  the  Green 
back  party,  378-382.     Silver  legislation  of  this  period,  403-410. 

4.  Bogart,   Economic  History  of  the  United  States.     Silver 
legislation,  346.     Large-scale  manufacturing,  373-379.      Labor 
unions,  425-426,  442-444. 

5.  For  source  readings  on  the  topics  of  this  chapter,  see  James 
and  Mann,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  27. 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  211.  The  holders  of  these 
dollars  might  deposit  them  in  the  Treasury  and  receive  in  exchange  silver 
certificates  in  the  same  amounts,  as  a  more  convenient  form  of  money. 
Ibid.,  215. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

POLITICAL  CHANGES  AND   INDUSTRIAL  EXPANSION, 
1880-1890 

Party  POLITICALLY,   the   administration   of   President   Hayes 

tiZsnfor  was  successful.  We  have  seen  (p.  449)  that  he  closed  the 
the  elec-  epoch  of  Reconstruction  by  withdrawing  the  Federal  troops 
i8800f  from  the  South.  The  Republican  party  profited  by  his 
sensible,  conservative  guidance,  and  by  his  honest  efforts 
in  the  direction  of  official  purity.  For  the  Republican 
nomination  for  President  in  1880,  there  arose  a  contest 
between  the  supporters  of  General  Grant,  whose  popu 
larity  was  at  this  time  greatly  increased  by  his  return  from 
a  trip  around  the  world,  and  the  opponents  of  a  "third 
term."  The  latter  were  divided  in  their  support  of 
James  G.  Elaine  and  John  Sherman.  The  warring  fac 
tions  finally  united  upon  James  A.  Garfield  of  Ohio,  with 
Chester  A.  Arthur  of  New  York  as  candidate  for  Vice- 
President. 

The  Democrats  nominated  Gen.  Winfield  S.  Hancock 
of  Pennsylvania  and  William  H.  English  of  Indiana. 

Mr.  Garfield  was  reared  in  poverty,  but  he  secured  a  college 
education  and  became  president  of  Hiram  College,  Ohio.  In 
the  Civil  War  he  had  shown  marked  ability,  rising  to  the  rank 
of  General;  he  had  been  a  Republican  leader  in  Congress  since 
1863. 

General  Hancock  had  had  little  political  experience,  but  his 
record  as  a  soldier  was  brilliant.  A  graduate  of  West  Point,  he 
had  seen  service  in  the  Mexican  War;  he  had  contributed  much 
toward  the  victory  at  Gettysburg,  where  he  commanded  the  left 
center  of  the  Union  Army.  His  nomination  strengthened  the 
adherence  of  the  War  Democrats. 

460 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion   461 


South." 


In  this  campaign,  as  in  1876,  the  past  records  of  the   Republi- 
two  parties,  chiefly  upon  Civil  War,  reconstruction,  and 
financial  policies,  were  debated.     The  result  was  remark-   "Solid 
able   in   the   clear  division   between   the  sections.      The 
Republicans  who  were  successful,  carried  all  the  North 
ern  States,  except  New  Jersey,  Nevada,  and  California; 
while  the  Democrats  carried  every  Southern  State.     The 
" Solid   South"  was    a  product  of  reconstruction  times. 


DISTRIBUTION  O 
POPULATION  IN  1880 

|  Undtr  2  inteintantt  toihttq.  m 


|MM*«M>        "         • 
Ctnttr  of  Population 


Population  map,  1880. 


In  this  section  practically  all  the  white  voters  were  united 
in  the  party  which  opposed  negro  suffrage,  regardless 
of  their  views  upon  other  questions. 

The  contest  between  the  two  Republican  factions  was   Factional 
renewed  when  President  Garfield  appointed,  as  Secretary  within  S 
of  State,  James  G.  Elaine,  the  personal  enemy  of  Senator 
Roscoe  Conkling  of  New  York,  who  had  been  leader  of 
the  Grant  faction.     Garfield  also  nominated  as  collector  of 
the  port  of  New  York  a  candidate  who  was  personally  and 
politically  unacceptable  to  Conkling.     The  confirmation 
of  the  latter  appointment  by  the  Senate  wrould  violate  the 


462 


American  History 


principle  of  "senatorial  courtesy"*  and  the  issue  was  most 
bitterly  contested.  The  Senate  finally  sustained  the  Presi 
dent.  Senators  Conkling  and  Platt  resigned,  but  the  legis 
lature  of  New  York  refused  to  vindicate  them  by  reelection. 


The  as 
sassina 
tion  of 
Garfield. 


James  A.  Garfield 

After  a  photograph  by  Bell— the  last  picture  made  before  the 
assassination 

The  opening  months  of  GarfiekTs  administration  were 
otherwise  perplexed  by  questions  involving  the  distribution 
of  "spoils."  He  was  gladly  seeking  release  from  these 
cares  by  leaving  Washington,  when  he  was  shot  down 
(July  9,  1881)  at  the  railway  station  by  Charles  Guiteau, 
a  disappointed  office-seeker,  who  thought  his  act  was  neces 
sary  to  prevent  a  split  in  the  Republican  party.  The 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  p.  275. 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion   463 


sympathy  of  the  entire  world  was  given  to  the  stricken 
President  during  the  weeks  that  followed.  On  September 
19  his  long  struggle  for  life  was  ended. 

Vice-President  Arthur,  who  now  succeeded  Garfield,  had   President 
been  hitherto  unknown  by  the  country,  outside  of  political   Artt 
and  social  circles  in  New  York.     There  were  fears  that 

the  consequences  follow 
ing  the  succession  of 
other  Vice-Presidents 
would  be  repeated;  but, 
fortunately,  Arthur  rose 
to  the  situation  and 
showed  himself  to  be  an ' 
able,  fearless  executive. 

The  events  above  re-  The 
cited  had  served  to  em-  forThfu 

phasize  the  evils  of  the  service 
..  .  ,  reform 

spoils  system,  its  debas-  ends  suc- 
ing  effects  upon  political  cessfuiiy. 
contests,  and  the  burden 
inflicted  upon  members 
of  Congress  and  the  Pres 
ident.  Besides,  the  evil 
practice  of  requiring  as 
sessments,  called  "  volun 
tary  contributions,"  from 
Government  employees 
had  been  in  full  operation 

during  the  preceding  campaign,  as  a  method  of  paying  ex 
penses.  Since  the  failure  of  the  civil  service  law  of  1871 
(see  p.  445),  the  fight  for  reform  had  been  continued 
by  independent  thinkers  and  able  reformers,  led  by  George 
William  Curtis  and  Carl  Schurz.  The  practice  of  re 
quiring  competitive  examinations  had  been  inaugurated 
in  some  departments  under  Hayes;  and  now  politicians 
who  relied  upon  gifts  of  public  offices  to  maintain  their 
political  stations  were  no  longer  able  to  resist  the  pressure 


George  William  Curtis 


464 


American  History 


The  nom 
ination 
ot  Elaine 
in  1884. 


The 

"  Mug 
wump" 
movement. 


of  public  opinion.  A  law  was  enacted  (1883)  requiring 
the  examination  system  for  clerks  in  the  departments 
at  Washington  and  in  the  larger  customs  houses  and 
post-offices.  Political  assessments  were  forbidden. 
Arthur  appointed  a  strong  commission  to  administer 
the  law.* 

The  close  friends  of  Arthur  wished  to  see  him  nominated 
by  the  Republicans  for  President  in  1884,  and  both  Senator 
Edmunds  of  Vermont  and  Senator  Logan  of  Illinois  each 
had  a  strong  following.  But  there  was  great  enthusiasm, 
especially  in  the  West,  over  James  G.  Elaine,  who  became 
the  Republican  standard  bearer.  Elaine's  personality — 
he  was  called  the  "plumed  knight" — was  very  attractive; 
his  public  record  was  long  and  brilliant;  f  he  had  stood  for 
conservative  Republican  measures  and  had  exercised  great 
influence  in  the  policy  of  that  party  during  and  after  the  war. 

Elaine's  nomination  was  followed  by  a  most  serious 
"bolt"  from  Republican  ranks  on  the  part  of  the  reform 
element  in  that  party.  The  "Mugwumps,"  who  refused 
to  support  him,  were  strongest  in  New  York  and  New 
England.  They  included  many  leading  editors,  edu 
cators,  and  men  of  culture;  while  many  others  of  equally 
high  character  remained  loyal  to  the  party.  This  move 
ment  was  strengthened  when  the  Democrats  nominated 
Grover  Cleveland  of  New  York  as  their  candidate.  Op 
position  to  Elaine  was  based  upon  three  propositions: 
(1)  He  was  accused  of  having  had  dishonorable  dealings 
with  corporations  while  a  member  of  Congress. f  (2)  He 
was  regarded  as  a  representative  of  "machine  politics," 
i.  e.,  the  arbitrary  and  sometimes  corrupt  control  of  the 
Republican  party  by  a  few  men.  (3)  Elaine's  foreign 

*  For  further  details  in  the  history  of  the  civil  service  law,  see  Gov 
ernment  in  State  and  Nation,  pp.  275-278. 

t  House  of  Representatives,  1863-1876;  Speaker,  1866-1875;  United 
States  Senator,  1876-1881;  Secretary  of  State,  1881.' 

J  While  this  was  most  strenuously  denied,  some  of  Elaine's  friends  now 
admit  that  his  acts  had  been  "indelicate";  but  the  practices  of  public 
men  were  not  at  that  time  so  severely  judged  as  at  present. 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion  465 

policy,  developed  while  he  was  Secretary  of  State,  was 
considered  unsafe  (see  p.  470). 

The  campaign  of  1884  was  filled  with  bitter  personal-  Theeiec- 
ities;  the  Southern  problem  attracted  little  attention  for  Democrat- 
the  first  time  since  the  Civil  War,  and  the  tariff  question  ic  Presi- 
became  of  more  importance.     In  the  election,  the  Demo- 


Grover  Cleveland 
Copyright  by  C.  M.  Bell 

crats  carried  the  "Solid  South"  and  the  doubtful  Northern 
States,  including  New  York,  where  the  result  apparently 
turned  upon  the  "mugwump"  movement. 

Cleveland,   the  first  Democratic  President  since  Bu-  President 
chanan,  represented  a  new  type  of  politician  in  that  posi-  land's 
tion.     His  previous  record  in  public  office  as  Mayor  of  record. 
Buffalo  and  Governor  of  New  York  had  marked  him  as 
fearlessly   independent   in    both    word    and    action.     His 


466 


American  History 


Railroad 
consolida 
tion  leads 
to  the  In 
terstate 
Commerce 
Act,  1887. 


Constitu 
tion, 

Article  I, 
section  8, 
clause  3. 


vetoes  checking  corrupt  and  extravagant  measures  had 
become  famous.  He  stood  for  honest,  business-like  ad 
ministration  of  government  by  officers  who  were  public 
servants  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name.  During  Cleveland's 
administration  the  Republicans  retained  control  of  the 
Senate,  and  no  great  party  legislation  was  enacted.  Im 
portant  laws  passed  were  the  Presidential  Succession  Act,* 
a  law  increasing  the  size  of  the  navy  and  placing  it  upon  a 
modern  footing,  and  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of  1887. 

The  measure  last  mentioned  was  the  outcome  of  con 
ditions  briefly  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter  (see  p.  455). 
While  various  States  were  trying,  by  laws  that  were  more 
or  less  strict,  to  supervise  and  regulate  railroads,  short 
lines  were  rapidly  being  consolidated  into  longer  ones. 
Through  lines  were  thus  established  between  the  great 
cities,  and  an  increasing  proportion  of  the  business  became 
interstate  instead  of  intrastate.  With  this  change  there 
came  about  a  condition  of  sharper  competition  at  cities 
that  were  railroad  centers,  resulting  in  discriminations 
and  rate  wars.  The  Granger  movement  included  a  de 
mand  for  Federal  legislation  regulating  railroads  as  a  cor 
rective  of  these  abuses,  and  two  Congressional  committees 
(reporting  in  1874  and  1886),  made  recommendations  look 
ing  toward  this  end.  In  1886  the  Supreme  Court  rendered 
a  decision  which  defined  interstate  commerce  as  that  be 
ginning  in  one  State  and  terminating  in  another,  and 
which  placed  all  such  commerce  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
Congress  exclusively.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of 
1887  was  accordingly  passed. 

This  law  established  a  Commission  of  five  persons  with 
power  to  investigate  and  to  report  concerning  grievances 
and  violations  of  the  act.  Railroad  charges  must  be  just 
and  reasonable;  unjust  discrimination  between  persons 
or  localities  were  prohibited;  pooling  was  declared  illegal; 

*  Members  of  the  Cabinet  succeed  to  this  office  in  case  of  the  death  or 
disability  of  both  President  and  Vice-President.  See  Government  in 
State  and  Nation,  pp.  265-266. 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion   467 

there  should  be  full  publicity  of  rates.*     This  act  marks 
an  era  in  the  history  of  transportation  in  this  country. 

In  the  political  contests  of  the  years  between  1876  and  The  tariff 
1884,  Civil  War  questions,  pertaining  chiefly  to  reconstruc-  J 
tion  and  finance,  and  the  personalities  of  candidates  were 
the  leading  issues  debated.  In  the  decade  that  followed, 
the  tariff  became  the  all-important  issue.  Upon  the 
question  of  protection  the  voters  of  the  Republican  and 
Democratic  parties  had  not  been  clearly  divided;  though 
in  theory,  and  for  campaign  purposes,  the  former  party 
had  stood  for  protection  and  the  latter  for  a  low  tariff. 
Fundamentally,  this  was  an  economic  and  business  ques 
tion,  rather  than  a  political  one,  and  within  the  ranks  of 
the  Republicans  were  Westerners  who  objected  to  the 
payment  of  high  prices  on  manufactures  when  the  neces 
sity  for  war  taxation  had  passed ;  while  particularly  strong 
in  the  Democratic  ranks  was  an  element  in  the  East  who 
desired  the  continuance  of  protection  for  their  industries. 

In    1882    there    was    a  general   demand    within    both  The  tariff 
parties    for    the    revision    and    reduction    of    the    tariff,   mission 
which  still  stood  practically  upon  its  war  basis.     Such  of  1883. 
reduction  was  advocated  partly  as  a  means  of  reducing 
the  great  surplus  that  was  rapidly  accumulating  in  the 
Treasury, f  and  partly  because  there  was  a  wide-spread 
conviction  that  the  protective  system  should  not  become 
the  permanent  policy  of  the  country.     Recognizing  the 
purely    economic    aspects    of    tariff-making,     Congress 
authorized  the  appointment  of  a  non-partisan  commission 
of  nine  persons   (not  members  of  Congress)   who  made 
an    investigation    and    report    (1883)    recommending    re 
ductions  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  the 

*  For  a  more  detailed  statement  see  Government  in  State  and  Nation, 
pp.  200-202. 

t  The  reduction  of  this  surplus  by  the  redemption  and  retirement  of 
the  greenbacks  was  opposed  for  fear  of  contraction  of  the  currency;  its 
reduction  by  the  payment  of  United  States  bonds  before  they  were  due 
would  reduce  the  amount  of  bonds  that  were  available  for  use  in  securing 
National  Bank  notes. 


468 


American  History 


Cleve 
land's 
tariff 
message, 
1887. 


The  elec 
tion  of 
1888. 


duties.  In  Congress  the  work  of  these  experts  was  re 
jected;  special  interests  made  strong  appeals  for  the  con 
tinuance  of  protection,  and  the  result  was  a  law,  passed 
the  same  year,  which  revised  the  tariff  in  a  haphazard 
way,  retaining  a  great  many  of  the  high  protective  duties. 
Western  farmers  were  particularly  dissatisfied  with  the 
repeal  of  the  duty  on  wool,  and  this  contributed  to  the 
defeat  of  the  Republican  party  in  1884. 

The  division  in  the  Democratic  ranks  on  the  tariff 
question  prevented  the  House  of  Representatives  from 
passing  a  new  tariff  law  in  the  early  part  of  Cleveland's 
administration.  But  the  President  was  a  radical  tariff 
reformer  and  devoted  his  entire  annual  message  in  De 
cember,  1887,  to  this  subject.  He  made  the  tariff  ques 
tion  a  clear  issue  between  the  parties.  The  Democrats  now 
stood  for  a  tariff  "for  revenue  only";  the  Republicans 
said  that  this  meant  "free  trade,"  and  they  went  further 
than  ever  before  in  advocating  protection  as  a  permanent 
National  policy.  They  demanded  the  protection  of  Amer 
ican  laborers  against  competition  with  laborers  in  European 
countries  where  the  scale  of  wages  was  much  lower.*  They 
argued  that  the  products  made  by  European  "pauper 
labor"  should  not  be  allowed  to  undersell  the  products  of 
American  laborers.  It  was  answered  that  the  protective 
tariff  caused  high  prices  in  this  country,  which  offset  the 
high  wages;  and  that  the  profits  arising  in  the  protected 
industries  were  not  fairly  divided  between  the  manu 
facturer  and  his  workmen. 

The  tariff  question  constituted  the  main  issue  in  the 
election  of  1888.  The  Democrats  nominated  Cleveland, 
as  a  matter  of  course.  The  Republican  candidate  was 
Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  a  lawyer  of  great  ability 
and  experience.  He  had  an  excellent  war  record,  and 

*  American  workmen  were  receiving  on  an  average  of  one  and  one-half 
times  the  English  wage,  twice  that  paid  in  Belgium,  three  times  the  rate 
customary  in  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  Spain.  Coman,  Industrial 
History  of  the  United  States,  299. 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion    469 

had  been  a  United  States  Senator  between  1881  and  1887. 
Besides  the  tariff  issue,  the  record  of  Cleveland's  admin 
istration  was  debated,  and  many  of  his  Mugwump  friends 
deserted  him  because  of  the  free  distribution  of  offices 
to  Democrats.  The  result,  a  substantial  victory  for  the 


Benjamin  Harrison 

Republicans,  may  be  regarded  as  a  popular  verdict  in 
favor  of  the  principle  of  the  protective  tariff. 

The  Republicans  now  went  forward  with  a  free  hand  Thereduc- 
in  their  solution  of  pending  questions.     The  reduction  of  surplus.1 
the  surplus   was   accomplished   by   the   enactment   of   a 
service,  or  dependent  pension  law;*  and  by  the  repeal  of 

*  This  pensioned  all  Union  soldiers  who  had  served  ^ninety  days  and  were 
now  unable  to  earn  a  living,  and  also  their  widows,  children,  and  depen 
dent  parents.  Pension  expenditures  now  rose  from  $89,000,000  in  1889 
to  $106,000,000  in  1890,  $118,000,000  in  1891,  and  $14 1,000,000  in  1892. 


470 


American  History 


The 

McKinley 
tariff  law, 
1890. 


Reciproc 
ity 

treaties. 


Elaine's 

foreign 

policy. 


the  duty  on  raw  sugar,  which  had  yielded  a  revenue  of 
$50,000,000  annually. 

In  the  McKinley  tariff  law,  of  which  this  was  a  part,  the 
protective  duties,  previously  averaging  about  forty  per  cent., 
were  made  fifty  per  cent. — a  restoration  to  the  war  basis. 
As  measures  favorable  to  agricultural  interests,  the  law  in 
cluded  duties  on  agricultural  products — small  amounts  of 
which  were  imported  from  Canada — and  a  provision  for  a 
bounty  on  all  sugar  produced  in  this  country.  A  "reciproc 
ity"  section  of  the  McKinley  law  authorized  the  President 
to  order  the  collection  of  high  duties  upon  sugar,  molasses, 
tea,  coffee,  and  hides  imported  from  countries  whose  tariff 
rates  upon  our  exports  were  unusually  high.  Under  this 
measure,  for  which  Secretary  of  State  Elaine  has  the  credit, 
reciprocity  treaties  were  negotiated  with  several  South 
American  countries.  They  reduced  their  duties  upon  our 
machinery  and  produce  in  recognition  of  our  policy  of 
placing  the  articles  above  mentioned  upon  the  free  list, 
when  imported  from  those  countries.*  The  McKinley 
tariff  law  was  the  principal  issue  in  the  election  of  1892, 
and  the  popular  verdict  was  against  it  (see  p.  479). 

James  G.  Blaine,  who  was  now  for  the  second  time 
Secretary  of  State,  represents  in  that  office  a  new  policy  in 
foreign  affairs,  the  complete  application  of  which  has 
come  about  only  within  recent  years.  In  its  foreign  policy 
our  Government,  since  its  establishment,  had  stood  on  the 
defensive,  and  had  not  sought  occasions  for  initiating 
new  movements.  Blaine  aimed  to  emphasize  the  leader 
ship  of  the  United  States  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  by 
proposing  a  Congress  of  all  the  American  nations  (1881). 
After  the  succession  of  President  Arthur  this  plan  was 
dropped.  In  1888  Congress  passed  a  resolution  providing 
for  such  an  international  conference,  and  it  met  at  Wash- 

*  Reciprocity  treaties  were  also  made  with  Germany  and  Austria,  where 
duties  were  lowered  on  our  agricultural  products  and  manufactures  in 
return  for  our  reducing  the  tariff  rates  on  beet  sugar  produced  in  those 
countries. 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion   471 

ington  in  1889-1890.  Secretary  Elaine,  as  President  of  the  The  Pan- 
Pan-American  Congress,  exercised  great  influence.  While 
the  direct  results  of  the  meeting  were  not  great — princi 
pally  a  declaration  in  favor  of  the  arbitration  of  all  dis 
putes  among  these  nations — the  indirect  benefits  were 
considerable.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  better  under 
standing  and  a  closer  friendship  among  the  American  Re- 


Congress. 


James  G.  Elaine 

publics.  Soon  thereafter  was  established  the  Bureau  of 
American  Republics  at  Washington.  Succeeding  Con 
gresses  carried  on  the  work  thus  begun,  meeting  at  the 
City  of  Mexico  (1901)  and  at  Rio  Janeiro  (1906,  see  p. 
513). 

During  the  administration  of  Harrison  (1889-1893) 
six  new  States  were  added  to  the  Union.  North  and 
South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington  in  1889,  Idaho 


472 


American  History 


Industrial 
tendencies 
of  this 
period. 


Reasons 
for  con 
centration 
of  in 
dustry. 


Methods 
of  com 
bination. 


and  Wyoming  in  1890.  The  territory  of  Oklahoma  was 
created  (see  p.  474).  Other  important  measures  of  this 
time  were  the  Sherman  silver  coinage  act  (see  p.  480) 
and  the  Sherman  anti-trust  law  of  1890. 

In  order  to  understand  the  last-mentioned  law  it  will 
be  necessary  to  recall  the  leading  features  of  the  new 
industrial  tendencies  that  followed  the  Civil  War.  These 
features  were:  the  increase  of  manufactures,  the  cheapen 
ing  of  production  through  the  use  of  machinery,  the  growth 
of  capital,  the  increased  means  of  transportation,  the  com 
bination  of  small  industries  into  large  ones,  and  the  growth 
of  great  corporations.  The  concentration  of  wealth  is  the 
most  significant  feature  of  this  period;  and  further  prog 
ress  in  this  direction  was  seen  in  the  tendency  of  corpor 
ations  to  combine  instead  of  competing  * 

The  principal  reason  for  the  combination  of  rival  concerns  is 
found  in  the  greater  economy  of  large-scale  production.  This 
economy  is  due  to  (1)  the  greater  division  of  labor,  (2)  the  better 
organization  of  management,  (3)  the  more  extensive  use  of 
machinery,  and  (4)  the  greater  utilization  of  by-products  and 
the  saving  of  waste.  Another  explanation  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  expansion  of  manufactures  in  this  period  had  resulted 
in  the  over-production  of  many  wares;  and  competition  for  their 
sale  had  become  more  fierce,  and  in  some  cases  ruinous.  Hence 
the  managers  sought  to  eliminate  competition  by  combination. 

Combination  was  accomplished  in  several  ways:  by 
one  establishment  purchasing  rival  plants;  by  the  larger 
plants  underbidding  the  smaller  ones  in  the  sale  of  products, 
and  thus  forcing  them  into  bankruptcy;  and  by  agreements 
upon  prices  among  rival  companies.  This  was  the  origin 

*  The  following  statistics  of  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
United  States  illustrates  this  tendency. 

Adapted  from  Ely,  Monopolies  and  Trusts,  183,  and  based  upon  the 
census  of  1890. 

PER  ESTABLISHMENT 

EMPLOY-  EMPLOY 

EES  PRODUCT  EES          PRODUCT 

2,053,000  $3,385,000,000 
2,700,000  5,349,000,000 
4,476,000  9,056,000,000 


YEAR 

1870. 
1880. 
1890. 


ESTAB 
LISHMENTS 

.  .252,000 
.  .  253,000 
.  .  322,000 


8.15  $13,428 
10.66  21,101 
13.88  28,071 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion    473 

of  the  trust,  the  logical  outcome  of  the  tendency  toward 
concentration  in  industry. 

The  term  "  trust "  was  applied  to  the   agreement  under  which    The 
the  directors  of  several  corporations  surrendered  their  powers    ®arli< 
to  a  board  of  trustees  who  managed  the  entire  business  of  the 
combined  plants.     This  procedure  being  declared  illegal  by  the 
courts,  the  trust  took  the  form  of  a  new  corporation,  which  in 
cluded  the  stockholders  of  the  former  independent  plants.* 

The  first  great  trust  was  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  By 
various  methods  of  competition,  and  by  securing  rebates  from 
railroads,  this  company  obtained  control  of  the  oil-refining 
business  in  the  central  States.  In  1882  a  trust  of  oil  companies 
was  formed,  but,  being  dissolved  by  the  courts,  it  reorganized 
as  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  with  practical  control  of  this 
business.  The  success  of  this  enterprise  was  largely  due  to  the 
genius  of  John  D.  Rockefeller. 

The  example  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company  was  soon  Anti- 
followed  by  capitalists  in  many  other  lines  of  manufacture: 
sugar,  whiskey,  lead,  cotton  oil,  linseed  oil,  etc.  The 
efforts  of  managers  to  avoid  competition  were  supplemented 
by  another  motive — that  of  securing  a  monopoly  and  en 
hanced  profits.  Prices  of  trust-made  goods  were  in  some 
instances  raised,  and  great  popular  discontent  resulted. 
In  many  States  anti-trust  laws  were  passed,  forbidding 
the  formation  of  agreements  that  tended  to  destroy  com 
petition,  control  prices,  or  limit  production.  Congress 
was  also  called  upon  to  take  action,  and  in  1890  the  Sher 
man  anti-trust  law  was  enacted.  As  Congress  has  no 
direct  control  over  industries  operating  solely  within  a 
State,  its  action  was  confined  to  prohibiting  agreements  or 
combinations  in  restraint  of  commerce  among  the  several 
States  and  with  foreign  nations.  Great  difficulty  was 
experienced  by  both  State  and  National  governments  in 
enforcing  their  anti-trust  laws,  and  the  process  of  con 
solidation  in  industry  continued. 

The  removal  of  the  Indian  tribes  west  of  the  Mississippi  Indian 
River  (see  p.  308)  could  not  constitute  a  settlement  of 
the  troublesome  problem  of  Indian  relations  that  had  ex- 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  202-203. 


474 


American  History 


Attempts 


A  new  land 


isted  since  colonial  times.  Westward  migration  pushed 
constantly  upon  the  limits  of  Indian  lands.  The  settlers 
even  invaded  the  numerous  reservations  of  which  the 
natives  were  to  have  had  secure  possession;  they  demanded 
the  privilege  of  cultivating  those  unused  acres  of  fertile 
land.  Government  treaties  and  obligations  were  violated 
in  many  cases.  Chiefly  owing  to  these  encroachments, 
Indian  outbreaks  and  wars  were  frequent  in  the  West, 
both  before  and  after  the  Civil  War.  The  Apaches  of 
Arizona,  the  Modocs  of  Oregon,  and  the  Sioux  were  es 
pecially  difficult  to  subdue.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
Black  Hills  of  Dakota  brought  the  whites  into  conflict 
with  the  Sioux.  They  made  a  formidable  resistance  in 
1876,  in  the  course  of  which  they  completely  destroyed  a 
detachment  of  United  States  troops,  including  their  com 
mander,  -General  Custer.  This  occurred  on  the  Little  Big 
Horn  River,  the  Indian  chieftain  being  Sitting  Bull. 

The  condition  of  settled  hostility  between  the  Indians 
and  tne  Government  was  modified  by  President  Grant, 
who  inaugurated  a  "peace  policy."  Missionary  activity 
among  the  Indians  was  encouraged;  the  Government  aided 
church  schools  on  the  reservations  and  established  at  con 
siderable  expense  its  own  schools.  Still,  conditions  on 
many  of  the  reservations  were  deplorable.  Some  of  the 
tribes  were  unable  to  support  themselves  and  received 
Government  bounty.  The  Indian  agents  who  acted  for 
the  Government  were  appointed  on  political  grounds,  and 
in  many  cases  were  unfit  and  dishonest. 

In  1887  Congress  enacted  the  Dawes  bill.  Under  the 
direction  of  a  commission  the  Indian  lands  were  to  be  al 
lotted  among  the  individuals  of  the  tribes,  instead  of  re 
maining  under  tribal  ownership,  as  previously.  In 
1889  a  portion  of  Indian  Territory  was  purchased  by  the 
Government  and  set  off  as  Oklahoma  Territory.  Its 
settlement  was  very  rapid;  cities  of  good  proportions  grew 
up  within  a  few  days'  time.  The  Territory  soon  sup 
ported  a  prosperous  agricultural  population. 


Political  Changes  and  Industrial  Expansion   475 
SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AJ*D  REFERENCES 


1.  Why  was  there  opposition  to  Grant's  having  a  third  term? 
See  p.  231.     Also,  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  255-256, 
question  2a.     Has    this  matter  arisen  in   connection  with  any 
President  since  Grant? 

2.  The  relations  of  Blaine,  Conkling,  and  Garfield.     Elson, 
History  of  the  United  States,  849-854.     Andrews,  The  United 
States  in  Our  Own  Time,  319-328. 

3.  Has  there  been  any  serious  break  in  the  Solid  South  since 
1880? 

4.  What  other  Vice-Presidents  have  succeeded  to  the  Presidency 
in  our  history?     Compare  the  results  in  those  cases  with  the 
results  following  the  succession  of  Arthur. 

5.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  spoils  system  ?     See  pp.  305-306. 
What  other  Presidents  besides  Garfield  seriously  felt  the  burden 
of  office-seekers?     See  p.  320. 

6.  Civil  Service  Reform.     Government  in  State  and  Nation, 
276-279,  281-282  (References).     Elson,  History  of  the  United 
States,   854-856.     Andrews,  The  United  States  in   Our  Own 
Time,  230-235,  341-342.     Hart,  Contemporaries,  IV,  No.  199. 

7.  The  campaign  of  1884.     Blaine,  Am.  St.  Series,  277-290. 
Accusations   against   Blaine,   ibid.,    144-176.     Elson,    857-861. 
Andrews,  452-480.     Sparks,  National  Development,  335-351. 

8.  Do  you  approve  of  the  Mugwump  movement  of  1884? 

9.  For  references  on  the  Interstate  Commerce  Law  of  1887,  see 
Government  in  State  and  Nation,  204. 

10.  Interstate  Commerce  and  the  law  of  1887.     Bogart,  Eco 
nomic   History   of   the   United   States,    317-327.     Coman,    In 
dustrial  History  of  the  United  States,  319-325. 

11.  Cleveland's  tariff  message  of  1887.     Hart,  Contemporaries, 
IV,  No.  164. 

12.  The  tariff  of   1890.     Dewey,  Financial  History  of  the 
United  States,  438-440. 

13.  The  growth  of  manufacturing  on  a  large  scale.     Bogart, 
373-379. 

14.  The  trusts.     Bogart,  400-416.     Coman,  Industrial  His- 
cory  of  the  United  States,  325-331.     Dewey,  National  Problems, 
chap.  12.    .For  references,  see  Government  in  State  and  Nation, 
204. 

15.  The  new  navy.     Andrews,  487-490. 


476  American  History 

16.  The  Pan-American  Congress.     Andrews,  409-416. 

17.  On  the  Indian  problem,  see  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  A  Cen 
tury  of  Dishonor;  also  her  novel,  Ramona.     Mrs.  Custer,  Boots 
and  Saddles.     Andrews,  Our  Own  Time,  186-193. 

18.  James    and    Mann.     Readings    in    American    History, 
chap.  28. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  POLITICAL  PROBLEMS,  1890-1897 

IT  is  a  fundamental  fact  in  the  economic  situation  of  Discon- 
these  years  that  the  rural  sections  did  not  enjoy  to  the  same  agricult-he 
degree  the  prosperity  that  prevailed  in  the  commercial  urai 
and  manufacturing  centers.     The  marked  movement  of 
population  toward  the  cities*  is  an  evidence  of  the  greater 
material  gains  to  be  earned  there,  besides  the  greater  edu 
cational  and  social  advantages  of  urban  life.     The  prices 
of  agricultural  products  steadily  declined. f    The  lessen 
ing  profitableness  of  farming  and  the  disadvantages  of 
farm  life,  which  now  became  more  apparent,  bred  a  wide 
spread   spirit   of   discontent  throughout   the   agricultural 
South  and  West.     An  organization  known  as  the  "  Fann 
ers'  Alliance"  was  the  outcome  of  this  feeling;  this  had  local 
and  State  branches  and  held  national  conventions.     By 

*  In  1870  about  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  population  lived  in  cities  of 
more  than  8,000  population;  in  1890  the  percentage  was  nearly  thirty. 
See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  34. 

t  The  following  table  of  prices  is  compiled  from  the  Statistical  Abstract 
of  the  United  States  for  1894: 


YEAR 

CORN, 
PER  BU. 

WHEAT, 
PER  BU. 

COTTON 
PER  LB. 

SALT 
PORK 

SUGAR 
PER  LB. 

BUTTER 
PER  LB. 

TO 
BACCO 

PER  LB. 

PER  LB. 

DOLLARS    DOLLARS 

CENTS 

CENTS 

CENTS 

CENTS 

CENTS 

1870 

.925 

1.29 

23.5 

13.2 

12.6 

29.3 

11.4 

1875 

.848 

1.12 

15.0 

10.1 

10.8 

23.7 

11.3 

1880 

.543 

1.25 

11.5 

6.1 

9.0 

17.1 

7.7 

1885 

.54 

.86 

10.6 

7.2 

6.4 

16.8 

9.9 

1890 

.418 

.83 

10.1 

6.0 

7.0 

14.4 

8.6 

1894 

.46 

.67 

7.8 

8.0 

4.4 

17.6 

8.5 

477 


478 


American  History 


The  evils 
com 
plained 
of. 


Criticism 
of  mone 
tary 
policy. 


The 

People's 

party. 


1891,  this  organization  included  several  millions  of  mem 
bers  and  controlled  a  thousand  newspapers. 

Among  the  grievances  leading  to  this  movement  were  the  fol 
lowing:  (1).  The  increasing  number  of  mortgaged  and  rented 
farms.  (2).  The  increase  in  corporate  wealth;  also,  the  fact 
that  stocks,  bonds,  and  other  intangible  evidences  of  this  wealth 
in  the  hands  of  individuals  easily  avoided  taxation.  (3).  The 
power  exercised  by  railroads  in  arbitrarily  fixing  rates,  and  other 
corporate  extortions  made  possible  by  the  formation  of  combi 
nations  and  trusts.  (4).  Speculation  in  agricultural  products 
and  the  formation  of  "corners"  by  wealthy  brokers  in  the  cities. 
(5).  The  growing  political  influence  of  corporations  and  men  of 
wealth.  (6).  The  increased  use  of  money  in  politics,  leading 
to  the  corruption  of  voters,  delegates,  and  legislators. 

In  their  efforts  to  assign  the  causes  and  to  find  the  remedies 
for  their  ills,  the  agricultural  population  was  right  in  some  respects 
and  wrong  in  others.  There  was  a  disposition  in  the  East  and 
North  to  ridicule  this  movement;  but  in  recent  years  measures 
have  been  adopted  to  check  the  evils  complained  of  (see  pp. 
518-519,  521-522). 

It  was  natural  that  many  of  these  evils  should  be  at 
tributed  to  the  monetary  policy  of  the  Nation  since  the 
Civil  War.  This  policy,  it  was  asserted,  was  deliberately 
adopted  by  the  Government  for  the  benefit  of  Eastern 
capitalists.  The  depression  of  prices,  ascribed  to  the  con 
traction  of  the  money  supply,  was  a  "conspiracy"  to  favor 
creditors  at  the  expense  of  debtors.  The  Farmers'  Al 
liance  therefore  demanded  an  increase  of  our  paper  cur 
rency,  and  the  free  coinage  of  silver. 

The  grievances  and  demands  above  stated  became  the 
platform  of  the  People's  or  Populist  party,  which  repre 
sented  the  political  side  of  this  movement. 

This  party  originated  in  Kansas,  held  its  first  national  con 
vention  in  1891,  and  became  the  most  formidable  third-party 
movement  since  the  Civil  War.  It  controlled  the  Democratic 
party  in  two  elections  (1896  and  1900),  and  the  spirit  of  its 
doctrines  has  to  some  extent  permanently  influenced  the  creeds 
of  both  Republicans  and  Democrats. 

In  the  Presidential  election  of  1892,  Harrison  and 
Cleveland  were  the  logical  candidates  of  the  Republicans 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems  479 

and  Democrats  respectively,   though  each  was  opposed  The  eiec- 
bv  a  powerful  faction  in  his  own  party.     Since  both  parties   i892;°the 

were  divided  within  their  own  ranks  upon  the  question  silver  and 
»   »  -i  •  i  •  i     i    ,1     7   •  LI  tariff  ques- 

of  free  silver  coinage,  they  avoided  that  issue  by  adopt-  tions. 
ing  planks  favoring  international  bimetallism,  which  every 
one  knew  to  be  a  policy  extremely  difficult  of  attainment. 
The  McKinley  tariff  law  became,  therefore,  the  leading 
issue  of  the  campaign.  As  this  act  seemed  to  have  caused 
an  advance  in  the  prices  of  manufactures,  without  a  cor 
responding  advance  in  wages,  the  popular  verdict  was  in 
favor  of  the  Democrats. 

The  People's  party  in  this  campaign  demanded:  the  The 
enactment  of  laws  checking  corporate  corruption;  the 
free  coinage  of  silver;  the  issue  of  paper  money  to  farmers 
upon  the  deposit  of  produce  in  Government  warehouses; 
free  trade  and  the  restriction  of  immigration ;  the  Govern 
ment  ownership  of  railroads,  telegraphs  and  telephones;  an 
income  tax;  shorter  hours  for  labor,  and  the  enforcement 
of  the  National  eight-hour  labor  law;  the  prohibition  of 
alien  and  large-tract  land  ownership.  Their  candidate  for 
President  was  General  James  B.  Weaver.  In  Colorado, 
Idaho,  Kansas,  North  Dakota,  and  Wyoming,  the  Demo 
crats  nominated  no  candidates,  the  Populists  taking 
their  place.  In  some  Southern  States  the  Populists  and 
Republicans  united.  The  third  party  cast  over  1,000,000 
votes  and  elected  twenty-two  Presidential  electors. 

In  the  State  and  Congressional  elections  of  1894  this 
party  cast  1,500,000  votes  and  the  issues  it  presented 
could  no  longer  be  ignored  by  the  two  great  parties. 
The  most  pressing  of  these  issues  was  that  of  free  silver 
coinage. 

It  has  been  stated  (p.  458)  that  the  Bland-Allison  act  The  ques- 
of  1878  was  a  compromise  measure,  enacted  to  satisfy 
in  part  the  growing  demand  for  the  coinage  of  all  the  silver 
bullion  that  might  be  brought  to  the  mints.  Under  this 
act  378,000,000  silver  dollars  had  been  coined  by  1890; 
but  this  did  not  have  the  expected  result  of  raising  the 


480 


American  History 


The 

Sherman 
act,  1890. 


The  de 
crease  of 
the  gold 
reserve. 


price  of  silver  in  the  market.*  Efforts  made  in  Congress 
between  1885  and  1890  to  enact  free  coinage  were  as  fruit 
less  as  were  opposing  efforts  made  to  stop  the  coinage  of 
silver  under  the  existing  law.  Neither  of  the  great  parties 
dared  to  legislate  upon  the  subject,  since  both  were  divided 
upon  this  issue  within  their  own  membership.  Several 
new  Western  States,  in  which  industrial  discontent  was 
very  strong,  were  at  this  time  admitted  into  the  Union 
(see  p.  471).  Many  of  the  Senators  and  Representatives 
from  these  States  favored  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  a 
bill  to  this  effect  passed  the  Senate  in  1890.  It  was  re 
jected  by  the  House  and  a  compromise  was  finally  enacted 
known  as  the  Sherman  law.f 

Under  this  law,  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver  were  to  ba 
purchased  monthly  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  at  the 
market  price.  This  bullion  was  to  be  stored,  and  Treasury 
Notes  were  to  be  issued  in  payment  for  it,  which  were  to  be 
redeemable  in  coin.  This  called  for  an  increased  purchase 
of  silver — practically  the  entire  product  of  the  country. 
The  law  declared  it  to  be  the  policy  of  the  Government  to 
maintain  the  value  of  gold  and  silver  coins  at  a  parity. 
This  meant  that  neither  should  be  allowed  to  depreciate 
below  face  value. 

The  improvement  in  the  value  of  silver  under  this  law 
was  but  temporary,!  and  now  arose  other  complications. 

*  Average  price  of  silver  per  ounce,  in  London: 


1878  

$1.15 

1891  

$  .88 

1880  

1.14 

1892  

87 

1885  

1  .  065 

1893  

.78 

1890  

1  .  046 

1894  

63 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States. 

t  Says  Senator  Sherman  in  his  Recollections  (Vol.  II,  1069-1070): 
"Some  action  had  to  be  taken  to  prevent  a  return  to  free  silver  coinage, 
and  the  measure  evolved  was  the  best  obtainable.  I  voted  for  it,  but 
the  day  it  became  a  law  I  was  ready  to  repeal  it,  if  repeal  could  be  had 
without  substituting  in  its  place  absolute  free  coinage." 

t  See  diagram  showing  the  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  silver  in  Gov 
ernment  in  State  and  Nation,  p.  210.  The  entire  question  is  there  dis 
cussed,  pp.  207-212,  215-217. 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems  481 

Since  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  (1879),  a  gold 
reserve  of  at  least  $100,000,000  had  formed  a  part  of  the 
stock  of  money  in  the  Treasury.  This  had  been  used, 
when  needed,  to  redeem  the  United  States  Notes,  and  it  was 
now  falling  in  amount  rapidly.*  The  principal  reasons 
for  the  withdrawal  of  large  amounts  of  gold  from  the 
Treasury  are  found  in  the  commercial  conditions  of  the 
time,  which  caused  a  balance  of  trade  against  the  United 
States.  As  this  balance  had  to  be  paid  in  gold,  and  as 
the  stock  of  gold  in  banks  was  reduced,  the  bankers  asked 
the  Government  to  redeem  United  States  Notes  as  a 
means  of  obtaining  it. 

Since  the  law  of  1878  (see  p.  457)   required  that  these  The  policy 
Notes,  when  redeemed,  be  reissued,  they  could  be  brought  eJnnwntTn 
back  for  redemption  repeatedly,  thus  constituting  an  "end-  redeeming 
less  chain "  for  drawing  gold  from  the  Treasury.     Further-  {JforTey. 
more,  the  new  Treasury  Notes  were  redeemable  in  coin, 
and  the  Government  chose  to  redeem  them  in  gold,  when 
that  was  requested.     It  did  so  for  fear  that  their  redemp 
tion  in  silver,  under  these  circumstances,  should  destroy  the 
confidence  of  the  commercial  world  in  the  willingness  of 
the  United  States  to  pay  its  obligations  in  gold.     This 
would  cause  gold  to  go  to  a  premium  (since  the  intrinsic 
value  of  the  silver  in  a  silver  dollar  was  but  $.67  in  1892), 
and  the    parity  of   the  two    kinds   of  money  would  be 
destroyed.     The  United  States  would  then  go  to  a  silver 
basis,  and  a  financial  panic  would  ensue. 

Fear  of  the  results  thus  predicted  caused  the  hoarding  The  panic 
of  gold  by  banks  and  individuals,  and  a  severe  financial  stoppage 
panic  began  in  the  summer  of  1893.     President  Cleve-  of  silver 
land,  who  attributed  these  troubles  to  the  continuance  of  * 
silver  purchases   and   the  issuance  of  Treasury   Notes, 
called  a  special  session  of  Congress,  requesting  the  repeal 

*  The  gold  reserve  in  the  Treasury  was  as  follows,  on  June  30  of  the 
years  indicated:  1890,  $190,232,000;  1891,  $117,667,000;  1892,  $114,342,- 
000;  1893,  $95,485,000;  1894,  $64,873,000.  Dewey,  Financial  History  of 
the  United  States,  442. 


482 


American  History 


of  the  silver  purchase  clause  of  the  Sherman  Act.  This 
was  accomplished,  after  a  bitter  struggle  in  the  Senate 
(November,  1893).  The  gold  reserve  continued  to  de 
cline,*  and  in  1894  and  1895  four  bond  issues  were  made 


The  silver 
issue  in 
the  elec 
tion  of 
1896. 


MM  Republica 
{HI]  Democratic  176 


Election  Map  of  1896 

as  a  means  of  replenishing  it.     The  National  debt  was 
thereby  increased  $262,000,000. 

The  steps  thus  taken  by  Cleveland's  administration 
to  maintain  the  gold  standard  aroused  the  bitterest  en 
mity  in  the  silver-producing  and  agricultural  sections  of 
the  country.  The  silver  question  became  the  main  issue 
in  the  Democratic  National  convention  at  Chicago  in 
1896.  The  free-silver  (Populist)  wing  of  that  party 
gained  control,  nominating  William  Jennings  Bryan  of 

*  There  was  a  decrease  in  revenue  receipts,  due  to  the  high  protective 
duties  of  the  McKinley  Act,  the  decline  of  business  during  the  panic, 
and  the  fear  of  tariff  revision  that  might  follow  the  Democratic  victory 
of  1892. 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems 


483 


Nebraska  as  their  candidate  for  President  and  inserting 
in  the  platform  this  plank:  "We  demand  the  free  and  un 
limited  coinage  of  both  silver  and  gold  at  the  present  legal 
ratio  of  sixteen  to  one,  without  waiting  for  the  aid  or  con 
sent  of  any  other  nation." 

Bryan  was  the  youngest  man  ever  nominated  for  the  Presidency,    William  J. 
being  then  but  thirty-six  years  of  age.     He  was  a  lawyer  residing   Bryan. 

at  Lincoln,  Nebraska. 
He  had  served  in  Con 
gress  for  two  terms. 
Bryan's  victory  in  the 
convention  over  Rich 
ard  P.  Bland,  of  Mis 
souri,  is  partly  attrib 
uted  to  a  brilliant 
speech  in  which  he 
said :  "  We  answer 
the  demand  for  the 
gold  standard  by  say 
ing,  'You  shall  not 
press  down  upon  the 
brow  of  labor  this 
crown  of  thorns.  You 
shall  not  crucify  man 
kind  upon  a  cross  of 
gold.'" 

The  Populist  party 
ratified  the  nomina 
tion  of  Bryan  for  the 
Presidency,  but  named 
their  own  candidate 
for  the  Vice-Presi 
dency  (Thomas  Wat 
son,  of  Georgia)  in 
stead  of  approving 
the  Chicago  convention's  nominee,  Arthur  Sewall,  of  Maine. 

A  large  section  of  the  Democratic  party,  particularly  in  the    The 
North  and  East,  was  dissatisfied  with  the  result  of  the  Chicago    ^G^Jd 
convention,  and  another  Democratic  ticket  (the  nominees  being   crat,s.»» 
John  M.  Palmer,  of  Illinois,  and  Simon  B.  Buckner,  of  Kentucky) 
was  placed  in  the  field.     This  wing  of  the  party  declared  for  the 
gold  standard;  but  many  of  the  "Gold  Democrats"  voted  the 
Republican  ticket. 


William  Jennings  Bryan 

From  a  stereograph,  copyright  1900,  by  Underwood 
&  Underwood 


484 


American  History 


The  Re 
publican 
nomina 
tions  and 
platform. 


The  free- 
silver 
argument. 


The  single- 
standard 
argument. 


The  Republicans,  in  their  national  convention  nomin 
ated  William  McKinley,  of  Ohio,  and  G.  A.  Hobart,  of 
New  Jersey.  Their  platform  declared  that  the  party  was 
"opposed  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver  except  by  inter 
national  agreement  with  the  leading  commercial  nations 
of  the  world,  which  we  pledge  ourselves  to  promote,  and 
until  such  agreement  can  be 
obtained  the  existing  gold 
standard  must  be  preserved." 
A  great  "campaign  of  edu 
cation"  now  ensued,  the  op 
posing  forces  being  divided 
sectionally  (see  map,  p.  482). 


On  the  free-silver  side  the 
argument  was  in  favor  of  "  more 
money"  as  a  means  of  reliev 
ing  distress  and  bringing  about 
prosperous  times.  More  sub 
stantial  were  their  contentions 
that  the  period  of  falling  prices 
was  due  to  the  use  of  gold  alone 
as  a  measure  of  value;  that  this 
contraction  of  the  basis  upon  William  McKinley 

which  values  rested  wrought  an 

injustice  to  debtors;  and  that  the  same  cause  produced  business 
stagnation.  They  urged  that  the  free  coinage  of  silver  by  the 
United  States  alone  would  bring  that  metal  to  a  parity  with 
gold  at  the  ratio  of  16:1,  and  would  satisfy  the  demand  for  a 
larger  supply  of  full  value  money. 

The  gold-standard  argument  attributed  the  decline  of  prices, 
and  the  consequent  enhancement  in  the  purchasing  power  of 
gold,  to  improvements  in  methods  of  production,  through  in 
ventions  and  large-scale  production;  to  the  opening  of  new 
sources  of  raw  materials;  and  to  the  lower  cost  of  transportation. 
It  was  claimed  that  the  benefits  of  lower  prices  counterbalanced 
any  injury  to  debtors.  The  rapid  opening  of  new  Western  lands 
and  the  competition  of  grain  from  India,  Russia,  and  the  Argen 
tine  Republic  were  cited  as  the  cause  of  low  prices  for  agricult 
ural  products.  Free-silver  coinage  would  result  in  depreciated 
silver  money.  The  great  commercial  nations  of  the  world  were 
bound  to  maintain  the  gold  standard,  and  the  United  States 
must  conform  to  this  practice. 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems  485 

The  campaign  resulted  in  a  decided  Republican  victory,   Repubii- 
but  the  vote  for  Bryan  was  so  large  (0,200,000  as  com-  £nd?he°r 
pared  with  7,100,000  for  McKinley)  that  the  free-silver  decline  of 
element  took  courage  and  looked  forward  to  victory  in  cause  V6r 
1900.     In    this    they   were   disappointed.     Other   events 
intervened   (chapter  29)  which  greatly  strengthened  the 
Republican  administration,  and  still  others  which  were 
unfavorable  to  the  silver  cause  (see  p.  507).     In  conse 
quence,  the  gold  standard  was  again  successful  in  1900; 
and  in  that  year,  too,  Congress  enacted  a  law  providing 
for  its  maintenance. 

Turning  now  to  the  important  events  of  Cleveland's  Hawaiian 
second  administration  (1893-1897)  we  note  first  his  policy 
toward  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     At  the  close  of  Harrison's 
administration  our  relations  with  Hawaii  were  in  an  un 
settled  state. 

These  islands  were  first  visited  by  missionaries  in  1820,  and 
the  natives  became  Christianized.  Later,  foreigners  became 
the  predominant  element;  the  industries  were  largely  in  the  con 
trol  of  Americans,  who  were,  however,  comparatively  few  in 
numbers.  Hawaii  was  originally  an  absolute  monarchy;  the 
foreign  element  had  compelled  the  adoption  of  a  constitution  in 
1887,  and  it  was  the  attempt  to  abrogate  this,  in  January,  1893, 
that  led  to  a  revolution,  incited  by  Americans.  Queen  Liliuok- 
alani  was  deposed.  The  provisional  government  then  formed 
was  recognized  by  President  Harrison,  and  a  treaty  of  annexa 
tion  was  drawn  up  and  submitted  to  the  Senate. 

When  President  Cleveland  assumed  his  position  (March  cieve- 
4,  1893)  he  withdrew  the  treaty  of  annexation  and  sent  a  Hawaiian 
special  commissioner  to  investigate  Hawaiian  conditions,   policy. 
He  reversed  his  predecessor's  policy,  on  the  ground  that 
the  revolution  had  been  assisted  by  United  States  troops 
from  a  man-of-war,  and  that  the  recognition  had  been 
hasty.     While  annexation  was  thus  delayed,  the  Queen 
was  forced  to  resign,  and  the  Hawaiian  Republic  was 
formed,  with  a  constitution  that  provided  for  future  an-  Theannex- 
nexation  to  the  United  States.     After  the  succession  of  Hawaii, 
McKinley   (1897),   there  was  still  lacking  a  two-thirds   1898- 


486 


American  History 


The  Ven 
ezuelan 
question. 


Olney's 
dispatch 
to 
Bayard. 


majority  of  the  Senate  favorable  to  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  of  annexation;  but  this  step  was  accomplished  by 
a  Joint  Resolution  (July,  1898).  Hawaii  was  given  the 
government  of  an  organized  territory.* 

Upon  other  questions  of  foreign  policy,  Cleveland's 
administration  was  independent  and  emphatic.  England 
and  Venezuela  had  for  many  years  disputed  over  the 
boundary  between  the  latter  country  and  its  neighbor  to 
the  east,  British  Guiana.  It  seemed  that  British  territorial 
claims  had  been  gradually  extended  westward  until  they 
threatened  the  control  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River. 
While  the  English  government  agreed  with  Venezuela 
upon  the  desirability  of  settling  this  controversy  by  arbi 
tration,  it  declined  to  include  HI  the  arbitration  all  of  the 
territory  which,  according  to  Venezuelan  claims,  was 
actually  in  dispute.  In  other  words,  England,  if  brought 
to  the  test,  would  use  force  in  excluding  Venezuela  from 
a  portion  of  the  disputed  territory.  TJie  United  States 
Government  had  at  various  times  used  its  influence  in 
favor  of  settling  the  question  by  arbitration;  and  now 
(November,  1895)  in  a  dispatch  sent  by  Secretary  of  State 
Richard  Olney  to  our  minister  at  London,  Mr.  Bayard, 
its  position  was  announced  in  a  most  emphatic  manner. 

The  opinion  was  stated  that  the  refusal  of  England  to  arbitrate 
the  entire  question  called  for  intervention  by  the  United  States, 
on  the  basis  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (see  p.  288  ).  England  was 
endeavoring  to  exercise  political  control  over  an  independent 
American  power;  the  interests,  welfare,  and  safety  of  the  United 
States  were  thereby  endangered.  Secretary  Olney  stated  the 
relations  of  the  United  States  to  the  other  American  powers 
thus:  "To-day  the  United  States  is  practically  sovereign  on  this 
continent,  and  its  fiat  is  law  upon  the  subjects  to  which  it  con 
fines  its  interposition."  It  is  "master  of  the  situation,  and  prac 
tically  invulnerable  as  against  other  powers." 

When  the  English  Prime  Minister,  Lord  Salisbury,  re 
fused  to  accept  our  Government's  view  and  again  refused 
the  arbitration  desired,  President  Cleveland  sent  (De- 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  323. 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems  487 

cember,  1895)  a  message  to  Congress,  recommending  Cleveland's 
that  a  commission  be  created,  composed  of  United  States  hTs^hreaf 
citizens,  to  determine  the  true  boundary  between  Venezuela  of  war* 
and  British  Guiana,  and  to  report  to  Congress.  He  con 
cluded:  "When  such  report  is  made  and  accepted,  it  will, 
in  my  opinion,  be  the  duty  of  the  United  States  to  resist  by 
every  means  in  its  power,  as  a  willful  aggression  upon  its 
rights  and  interests,  the  appropriation  by  Great  Britain 
of  any  lands  or  the  exercise  of  governmental  jurisdiction 
over  any  territory  which  after  investigation  we  have  de 
termined  of  right  belongs  to  Venezuela."  This  was  a 
distinct  threat  of  war,  and  it  created  a  profound  impression 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  Opinions  differed  upon  the 
policy  of  the  administration;  many  high  authorities*  op 
posed  it  as  an  undue  extension  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 
Popular  opinion  supported  it,  however,  and  Congress 
appropriated  $100,000  for  the  expenses  of  the  commis 
sion  which  was  appointed  by  the  President.  Fortunately, 
the  English  Government  receded  from  its  position, 
consenting  to  the  arbitration  of  all  lands  reasonably  in 
dispute.  The  services  of  the  Commission  were  not 
needed,  and  a  Tribunal  of  Arbitration  finally  fixed  the 
boundary  line. 

The  disagreeable  danger  of  war  during  the  discussion  Thearbi- 
over  this  incident  led  to  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty  with 
England  providing  for  the  submission  of  future  disputes 
with  that  country  to  arbitration.  Although  it  was  sup 
ported  by  popular  sentiment,  this  treaty  was  rejected  by 
the  Senate.  The  need  for  such  an  agreement  had  been 
more  than  once  apparent.  Two  troublesome  questions 
still  unsettled  involved  the  rights  of  American  and  Cana 
dian  fishermen  on  the  Atlantic  Coast,  and  the  protection 

*  See  Woolsey,  America's  Foreign  Policy ,  223-238 ;  also,  Forum, 
February,  1896.  On  the  contrary,  Foster  regards  Olney's  dispatch  as 
embodying  "  the  most  complete  and  satisfactory  statement  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  thus  far  made."  A  Century  of  American  Diplomacy,  470. 
See  post,  p.  513. 


488 


A  mcrica  /  /  //  istury 


Fisheries 
and  sealing 
questions. 


The  Cen 
tennial 
Exposi 
tion  and 
the 

World's 
Fair. 


"The  ad 
vance  of 
women 
into  new 
fields  of 
activity. 


of  the  seal  fisheries  of  the  Alaskan  waters.  The  former 
of  these  assumed  an  acute  stage  during  Cleveland's  first 
administration,  but  an  agreement  was  finally  reached  by 
the  two  governments.  The  claims  of  the  United  States 
to  jurisdiction  over  seal-catching  in  the  entire  Behring 
Sea  gave  rise  to  a  sharp  controversy  and  some  use  of 
violence.  This  question  was  submitted  to  a  tribunal 
that  sat  at  Paris  (1893)  and  decided  adversely  to  our 
Government's  claim. 

The  first  great  American  exposition  was  held  at  Phila 
delphia,  in  1876,  celebrating  the  centennial  anniversary 
of  our  independence.  This  had  an  elevating  and  enlight 
ening  influence,  stimulating  greater  interest  in  the  artistic 
side  of  life,  as  well  as  spreading  knowledge  of  new  in 
dustrial  processes.  The  year  1893  saw  the  greatest  of 
world's  expositions,  that  at  Chicago,  in  celebration  of 
the  discovery  of  America.  With  a  total  of  twenty-seven 
million  admissions,  this  "World's  Fair"  was  an  educa 
tional  and  unifying  force  of  great  importance.  While 
its  predominant  features  were,  of  course,  industrial,  it 
was  no  less  impressive  artistically.  On  the  intellectual 
and  religious  sides  the  World's  Congress,  of  which 
the  Parliament  of  Religions  formed  a  part,  was  a 
notable  achievement.  Here  was  the  best  evidence  of 
that  breadth  of  thought  and  tolerance  of  spirit  which 
stand  among  the  remarkable  products  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

The  Chicago  Fair  emphasized  in  various  ways  the  recent 
advancement  of  women :  their  entrance  into  new  industrial 
fields,  the  remarkable  growth  of  women's  organizations, 
and  the  beneficent  work  accomplished  by  women  in  moral 
and  civic  reform,  as  well  as  in  the  direction  of  self-culture. 
Accompanying  these  significant  changes  in  the  sphere 
traditionally  occupied  by  women,  was  a  growing  rec 
ognition  by  the  general  public  of  their  right  to  higher 
education,  and  their  ability  to  profit  by  it.  This  was 
indicated  by  the  more  general  admission  of  women  to 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems  489 

collegiate  courses  and  the  establishment  of  new  women's 
colleges.* 

Other  indications  of  educational  advance  in  this  time   Educa- 
were:  the  rapid  growth  of  the  number  of  students  in  col-  p^ess  In 
leges  and  universities;  the  expansion  of  college  courses  colleges 
and  the  introduction  of  the  elective  system;  the  employ-  m0n 
ment  of  new  methods  of  research  by  advanced  students;  schools- 
the  improvement  of  high-school  courses  and  equipment; 
and  the  increased  attention  paid  to  elementary  education, 
especially  in  cities.     These    changes    were  accompanied 
by  the  greater  study  and    application  of  the  science    of 
education. 

The  great  writers  of  the  earlier  period  of  our  history  The  new 
(see  p.  303)  continued  their  work  after  the  Civil  War;  and  J^dc^n 
a  new  group  of  authors  arose,  notable  particularly  for  authors, 
originality  and  for  their  interpretation  of  purely  American 
phases  of  life  and  character.  Prominent  among  these  were 
the  novelists  and  short -story  writers:  Bret  Harte,  Henry 
James,  Frank  Stockton,  F.  Marion  Crawford,  C.  H. 
(Joaquin)  Miller,  William  D.  Ho  wells,  and  Elizabeth 
Stuart  Phelps  Ward.  Among  the  poets  there  were  Walt 
Whitman,  Edmund  C.  Stedman,  T.  B.  Aldrich,  and  R. 
W.  Gilder.  There  was  a  new  group  of  critics,  historians, 
and  essayists:  John  Fiske,  George  W.  Curtis,  C.  D.  War 
ner,  T.  W.  Higginson,  and  Edward  Eggleston.  Humor 
and  "local  color"  were  displayed  in  the  works  of  Eugene 
Field,  James  Whitcomb  Riley,  E.  W.  ("Bill")  Nye, 
and  Samuel  L.  Clemens  ("Mark  Twain").  For  the 
first  time  in  our  history,  the  South  was  adequately  rep 
resented  in  the  field  of  literature;  prominent  among  its 
writers  were  Joel  Chandler  Harris,  Paul  Hayne,  George 
W.  Cable,  Thomas  N.  Page,  and  Sidney  Lanier.  On 
the  whole  the  work  of  the  writers  in  this  period  dis- 

*  Vassar,  1861;  Smith,  1875;  Wellesley,  1875;  Radcliffe,  1879;  Bryn 
Mawr,  1885;  Barnard,  1889;  Mt.  Holyoke,  1888  (established  as  a  semin 
ary  by  Mary  Lyon  in  1837).  In  1900  one-third  of  the  students  in  all  the 
colleges  of  the  country  were  women. 


490 


American  History 


The  popu 
larization 
of  litera 
ture. 


Inventions 
and  im 
proved 
processes 
cheapen 
and  multi 
ply  the 
products 
of  manu 
facture. 


Changes 
affecting 
agricul 
ture. 


played  variety,  freshness  of  spirit,  and  a  truly  American 
tone  that  mark  this  as  an  epoch  in  our  intellectual 
history. 

There  was  a  remarkable  advance  in  the  arts  of  photog 
raphy  and  illustration,  accompanied  by  the  multiplica 
tion  of  magazines  and  the  enlargement  and  increased 
circulation  of  newspapers.  American  artists  and  archi 
tects  began  to  achieve  marked  success  and  raised  the 
standards  of  artistic  merit  in  this  country. 

The  period  of  industrial  depression  that  followed  the 
panic  of  1873  was  followed  by  a  period  of  activity  that 
grew  in  intensity  toward  the  end  of  the  century,  though 
interrupted  for  a  short  time  by  the  crisis  of  1893.  Before 
1865  the  largest  number  of  patents  issued  in  a  single  year 
was  about  5,000.  Between  1867  and  1879  the  average 
number  annually  was  nearly  three  times  that  number; 
for  each  of  the  twenty  years  succeeding  1879  the  average 
number  was  about  23,000.  Some  of  the  new  processes 
and  products  in  this  period  added  greatly  to  the  comfort  of 
life;  such  were  the  systems  of  heating  by  steam  and  hot 
water,  and  new  methods  of  sanitary  plumbing.  There 
came  into  use  cheap  processes  of  canning  fruit,  vegetables, 
and  meats,  and  methods  of  "packing"  meats,  both  lead 
ing  to  the  establishment  of  immense  industries  and  add 
ing  a  great  variety  of  foods  to  the  dietary  of  all  classes. 
The  manufacture  of  artificial  ice  and  the  process  of  refrig 
eration  made  possible  the  storage  and  shipment  of  many 
perishable  food  products  hitherto  unattainable  at  a  dis 
tance  from  their  sources  of  production. 

The  application  of  the  roller  process  in  flour  manufac 
ture,  accompanying  the  opening  of  the  new  north-western 
wheat  fields,  revolutionized  that  industry.  The  product 
of  the  local  " grist  mills"  of  the  central  States,  with  their 
water  wheels  and  millstones,  was  underbid  by  "patent" 
flour  from  Minneapolis.  The  fields  of  those  States  were 
now  planted  with  corn,  and  stock-raising  and  dairying 
became  the  great  industries  of  the  central  West.  At  the 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems 


491 


same  time  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  with  im 
proved  appliances,*  sprang  up.  Oleomargarine  was  first 
manufactured  in  this  period. 

Of  labor-saving  inventions  we  may  enuinerate  the  typewriter,    Some 
sulky  plough,  self-binding  reaper,  compressed-air  rock  drill.     The    important 
Hoe  web  printing  press,  the  linotype,  stereotyping,  and  improved 
methods  of  paper-making   (the  sulphite  process  of  pulp  manu 
facture),  rendered  printing  much  cheaper  and  increased  enor 
mously  the  output  of  books,  newspapers,  and  pamphlets.  Travel 
was  made  more  safe  and  comfortable  by  the  Westinghouse  air 


inventions. 


Side  and  front  views  of  Bell's  first  Telephone 

The  instrument  shown  at  the  Centennial  Exposition 

brake,  vestibuled  trains,  and  systems  of  automatic  signalling. 
Cable  street-car  lines  and,  later,  trolley  car  systems  stimulated 
the  expansion  of  cities.  Another  class  of  inventions  gave  us 
dynamite,  smokeless  powder,  the  magazine  rifle,  the  Whitehead 
torpedo,  and  automatic  guns.  The  bicycle,  assuming  its  present 
form  in  1875,  became  extensively  used  about  1890,  and  added 
much  to  the  convenience  and  pleasure  of  thousands.  Improve 
ments  in  passenger  elevators,  coinciding  with  the  cheapening 

*  Professor  Babcock,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  donated  to  that 
State  his  milk-test  invention,  which  has  revolutionized  the  dairy  business 
and  added  millions  of  dollars  to  the  value  of  dairy  farms  throughout  the 
world. 


492 


American  History 


The  "age 
of  elec 
tricity" 
was  begun. 


The  Chi 
cago  strike 
of  1894. 


in  processes  of  steel  manufacture,  and  the  application  of  the  steel- 
cage  method  of  constructing  buildings,  gave  us  the  first  "sky 
scrapers"  of  our  great  cities. 

The  most  remarkable  industrial  advance  of  this  period 
was  in  the  field  of  electrical  appliances.  By  1870  electric 
dynamos  had  been  made  practicable,  though  their  ex 
tensive  use  came  later,  with  improvements  in  the  long 
distance  transmission  of  elec 
tric  currents.  The  Bell  tele 
phone  was  invented  in  1876; 
later,  the  arc  and  incandes 
cent  lights*  were  introduced. 
Storage  batteries  and  elec 
tric-welding  followed,  and 
the  trolley  car  became  com 
mon.  Manufacture  in  all 
departments  was  facilitated 
and  cheapened  by  standardi 
zation  (parts  of  machines  be 
ing  made  in  standard  sizes 
and  shapes),  and  the  conse 
quent  use  of  interchangeable 
parts. 

One  of  the  most  notable 
strikes  in  our  history  had  its 
center  in  Chicago  in  1894. 
Palace  Car  Company  struck  for  the  restoration  of  wages 
that  had  been  reduced.  These  workmen  were  members 
of  the  American  Railway  Union. f  Although  advising 
against  the  strike,  the  Union  supported  its  members  when 
the  Pullman  Company  refused  to  arbitrate  the  questions 

*  Thomas  A.  Edison  is  the  greatest  inventor  in  our  history.  Before 
1900  he  had  registered  727  patents,  among  which  were  the  incandescent 
lamp,  phonograph,  microphone,  and  kinetoscope. 

t  The  formation  of  this  union  was  an  attempt  to  counteract  the  influ 
ence  of  the  General  Managers  Association  (1886)  which  unified  the  policies 
of  more  than  twenty  railroads  centering  in  Chicago. 


Thomas  A.  Edison 

Employees  of  the  Pullman 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems  493 

at  issue,  or  to  " recognize"  the  Union.  A  sympathetic 
strike  was  ordered,  in  which  train  men  refused  to  move  trains 
containing  Pullman  cars.  Within  a  few  days  there  was 
a  general  paralysis  of  commerce  centering  in  Chicago. 
In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  city  officers,  state  militia,  and  special 
United  States  marshals  to  maintain  order,  and  to  facilitate 
the  movement  of  trains  by  non-union  men,  there  was  great 
danger  to  life  and  much  destruction  of  property  in  Chicago. 
Finally,. President  Cleveland  ordered  Federal  troops  to  the  The  use  of 
scene,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  obstruction  of  mail  froopFsal 
trains  and  interstate  commerce.  This  was  done  against 
the  protest  of  Governor  Altgeld  of  Illinois.*  An  injunction 
was  issued  by  a  Federal  Court  against  the  officers  of  the 
American  Railway  Union,  forbidding  them  to  issue  further 
orders  in  pursuance  of  the  strike.  The  President  of  the 
Union,  E.  V.  Debs,  and  other  officers,  were  convicted  for 
disobedience  of  this  injunction. f  The  strike  was  a  failure, 
but  a  United  States  Commission  of  investigation  con 
demned  the  refusal  of  the  Pullman  and  railroad  officials 
to  arbitrate. 

The  Democrats  having  come  into  power  in  1893  on  the  A  Demo- 
tariff  issue,  President  Cleveland  urged  Congress  to  reduce  tariftMaw. 
customs  duties.  The  "Wilson  Bill,"  as  it  passed  the 
House  of  Representatives,  accomplished  a  reduction  and 
placed  some  raw  products  (sugar,  wool,  lumber,  etc.)  on 
the  free  list.  This  bill  was  radically  amended  in  the 
Senate  in  the  direction  of  protection,  largely  through  the 
influence  of  Senator  Gorman  of  Maryland.  There  were 
charges  of  corrupt  influences  used  by  the  Sugar  Trust  and 
other  favored  industries.  The  amended  bill  passed  Con 
gress,  but  Cleveland  denounced  it  and  allowed  it  to  be 
come  a  law  without  his  signature  (1894). 

In  this  action  and  in  the  very  large  number  of  vetoes  sent  to 
Congress  during  his  term,  Cleveland  showed  a  sturdy  indepen 
dence  that  won  for  him  many  friends  outside  his  party. 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  317-318. 
t  Ibid.,  203. 


494 


American  History 


The  in 
come-tax 
law. 


A  Repub 
lican  high 
tariff 
measure. 


The  Mor 
mons  and 
Utah. 


An  unanticipated  feature  of  the  Wilson-Gorman  law,  and  one 
showing  the  influence  of  the  Populist  element  in  the  Democratic 
party,  was  an  income  tax;  all  incomes  over  $4,000  were  to  be 
taxed  two  per  cent,  upon  the  excess  above  that  amount.  This 
part  of  the  law  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme 
Court  on  the  ground  that  it  levied  a  direct  tax,  which  should  have 
been  apportioned  among  the  States,  instead  of  being  made 
uniform.* 

Upon  the  resumption  of  power  by  the  Republicans 
under  McKinley  in  1897,  another  tariff  revision  occurred, 
this  time  in  the  direction  of  higher  protection.  The 
Dingley  law  marks  the  highest  average  of  duties  (over 
50  pef  cent.)  in  our  history.  Reciprocity  was  provided 
for  by  this  law,  and  a  few  reciprocity  treaties  were  con 
cluded  with  foreign  governments.  Other  more  important 
treaties  were  rejected  by  the  Senate,  the  representatives 
of  sections  having  protected  industries  refusing  consent 
to  any  reduction  of  duties.  The  radical  protective  policy 
of  the  United  States  led  to  the  enactment  of  retaliatory 
tariffs  by  some  foreign  countries. 

When  the  Mormons  settled  in  Utah  (p.  304),  they  hoped 
to  remain  isolated  from  governmental  control.  In  1850, 
however,  Utah  was  made  a  territory,  with  Brigham  Young 
as  governor.  The  Federal  Government  successfully 
maintained  its  authority  over  that  territory,  passed  laws 
prohibiting  polygamy  (1862  and  1882),  and  dissolved  the 
corporation  of  the  Mormon  Church  because  it  supported 
that  illegal  practice.  The  enforcement  of  these  laws, 
after  much  delay  and  opposition,  was  followed  by  the 
renunciation,  by  the  church  authorities,  of  the  doctrine 
sanctioning  polygamy  (1890).  Utah,  though  possessing 
in  that  year  207,000  population,was  refused  admission  as 
a  State.  It  was  finally  admitted,  however,  in  1896,  after 
the  adoption  of  a  State  Constitution  prohibiting  polygamy. 

The  Civil  Service  Law,  as  originally  passed  in  1883 
(p.  463),  placed  about  14,000  Federal  employees  under  the 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  186-189.  Constitution,  Article 
I,  section  8,  clause  1;  Article  I,  section  2,  clause  3. 


Industrial  and  Political  Problems  495 

examination  system.     All  of  the  Presidents  after  that  date  Progress 
extended  this  requirement  to  larger  numbers  of  employees  ^^ice 
and    to  other  branches   of   the   civil   service.     By   1892,   reform. 
43,000  officers  were  included  in  the  merit  system,  and 
during     Cleveland's     administration    this     number    was 
doubled,  becoming  87,000.     McKinley,  however,  in  1899, 
removed  some  10,000  employees  from  the  classified  ser 
vice,  in  order,  it  was  stated,  to  rectify  errors  made  in  pre 
vious  extensions  of  the  rules. 

Under  Harrison,  Theodore  Roosevelt  made  a  notable  record    Thebene- 
as  a  member  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission.     He  stated  the   fits  of  tne 
argument  for  the  merit  system  tersely,  as  follows:  "They  [offices]   r 
can  no  longer  be  scrambled  for  in  a  struggle  as  ignoble  and  brutal 
as  the  strife  of  pirates  over  plunder;  they  no  longer  serve  as  a 
vast  bribery  chest  with  which  to  debauch  the  voters  of  the 
country.     Those  holding  them  no  longer  keep  their  political 
life  by  the  frail  tenure  of  service  to  the  party  boss  and  the  party 
machine;  they  stand  as  American  citizens,  and  are  allowed  the 
privilege  of  earning  their  own  bread  without  molestation  so  long 
as  they  faithfully  serve  the  public."* 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Compare  the  Populist  movement  with  the  "wave  of  De 
mocracy,"  in  Jackson's  time.     How  many  of  the  Populist  de 
mands  (p.  479)  are  now  favored  by  their  former  enemies? 

2.  On  the  silver  legislation  of  1890  and   1893,  see  Dewey, 
Financial    History    of    the    United    States,    436-438,    440-447. 
Bogart,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  349-351. 

3.  Compare  the  attitude  of  the  great  parties  toward  free  silver 
with  the  position  of  Whigs  and  Democrats  upon  slavery  issues. 

4.  The  election  of  1896.     Elson,  History  of  the  United  States, 
885-889.     Andrews,  The  United  States   in   Our   Own  Time, 
773-787.    Dewey,  National  Problems,  chap.  20. 

5.  Bryan's  speech   in  the   Chicago  convention.     Hart,  Con 
temporaries,  IV,  No.  171. 

6.  Hawaii.     Andrews,  700-706. 

7.  The   Venezuela    boundary   question.     Andrews,    706-707. 
Olney's    statement     of    the     Monroe     Doctrine.     Hart,     Con- 

*  Atlantic  Monthly,  February,  1895. 


496  American  History 

temporaries,  IV,  No.  179.  Cleveland's  Venezuelan  message. 
Macdonald,  Select  Statutes,  413-418.  Lamed,  History  for 
Ready  Reference,  United  States,  1895;  Venezuela. 

8.  Did  Monroe's  message  of  1823  (see  pp.  288-289)  contem 
plate  such  a  controversy  as  that  over  the  Venezuelan  boundary  ? 

9.  Why  the  arbitration  treaty  with  England  was   rejected. 
Larned,  History  for  Ready  Reference,  United  States,  1897. 

10.  Mention  a  work  or  works  by  each  of  the  authors  men 
tioned  on  p.  489. 

11.  Give  reasons  why  the  United  States  surpasses  all  other 
countries  in  the  number  of  inventions. 

12.  Make  a  list  of  conveniences  of  this  time  which  your  parents 
could  not  have  enjoyed  in  their  youth. 

13.  What  is  the  economic  reason  for  "sky-scrapers"? 

14.  The  electrical  inventions.      Andrews,  669-678.     Sparks, 
National  Development,  37-51. 

15.  The    Chicago    strike.     Andrews,    722-735.     Wright,    In 
dustrial    Evolution    of    the    United    States,   313-317.     Dewey, 
National  Problems,  291-296. 

16.  The   tariff  of   1894.     Dewey,   Financial   History  of   the 
United  States,  455-458. 

17.  The   Mormons    and    Utah.     Sparks,    Expansion    of    the 
American  People,  410-418.     Andrews,  600-604. 

18.  James  and  Maim,  Readings  in  American  History,  chap.  29. 


CHAPTER   XXX 
THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR,  1898 

IN   the   earliest   period   of  American   history,   Spain's  Spain's 
colonial  policy,  like  that  of  other  nations,  rendered  her  co^1a°1nal 
colonies  dependent  upon  the  mother  country,  and  sacri-  policy  con- 
ficed  their  interests,  when  it  was  necessary,  to  bring  this  cub? m 
about  (see  pp.  23-26).     The  loss  of  all  her  colonies  on  the 
main  land  of  the  American  continent,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  did  not  teach  Spain  the  lesson  in 
colonial  management   that  was    being  learned   by  other 
nations.     Her  former  policy  was  continued  in  the  govern 
ment  of  Cuba  until  the  year  1898. 

1.  Duties  on  goods  imported  into  Cuba  were  so  adjusted  as 
to  compel  Cubans  to  purchase  in  Spain.  2.  There  was  excessive 
taxation,  levied  by  arbitrary  methods,  and  bearing  upon  in 
dustries  that  needed  encouragement  rather  than  repression. 
3.  The  currency  and  banking  systems  of  Cuba  were  cumber 
some  and  inadequate.  4.  The  administration  of  Cuban  affairs 
was  in  the  hands  of  Spanish  officers,  native  Cubans  being  dis 
qualified.  These  officers  were  frequently  but  political  parasites. 
Intelligent  Cubans  felt  keenly  their  treatment  as  inferiors  by 
the  mother  country. 

There  were  numerous  conspiracies  and  uprisings  against  The  ten 
the  Spanish   power,   beginning  in   1823.     A  formidable  beUhnUn 
rebellion    lasted  from    1868  to  1878.     This  was  caused  Cuba. 
by  the  Spanish  refusal  to  grant  reforms,  including  such 
ordinary  political  privileges  as  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the 
press,  besides  the  right  of  Cubans  to  hold  office  and  to 
be  represented  in  the  Spanish  Cortes.     The  cost  of  sup 
pressing  this  rebellion  ($300,000,000)  was  added  to  the 

497 


498 


American  History 


Cuban  debt,  which  continued  to  grow  until  in  1898  it 
amounted  to  $283  per  capita — "more  than  three  times  the 
per  capita  debt  of  Spain  and  much  larger  than  the  per 
capita  debt  of  any  other  European  country."  * 

At  the  close  of  the  ten  years'  revolt,  mentioned  above, 
Spain  extended  the  Spanish  constitution  and  laws  to 
Cuba,  and  thus  technically  granted  the  reforms  that  had 
been  demanded,  including  representation  in  the  Cortes. 
But  Cubans  claimed  that  these  reforms  were  merely  on 


United  States  Battle-ship  Maine  entering  Havana  Harbor,  January,  1898 
From  a  photograph.     Copyright,  1898,  by  J.  C.  Hemment 

paper  and  that  practically  the  government  of  the  island 
was  as  oppressive  as  before. 

The  burden  of  taxation  and  bad  economic  conditions  led 
to  another  insurrection  in  1895.  The  United  States  de 
clared  a  policy  of  strict  neutrality,  and  President  Cleve- 
revoiution.  jan(j  offere(j  j^g  services  in  mediation  between  Spain  and 
Cuba,  but  without  effect.  Meanwhile,  popular  sympathy 
for  the  Cubans  grew  strong  in  the  United  States.  This 
was  increased,  and  to  it  was  added  deep  indignation, 


*  Report  on  the  census  of  Cuba.     War  Department,  1899.     This  docu 
ment  contains  a  summary  of  Cuban  history. 


The  Spanish-American  War  499 

when  the  horrors  of  the  " reconcentration "  policy  became 
known.  The  non-combatant  country  population,  who 
sympathized  with  the  insurgents  and  gave  them  assist 
ance,  were  compelled  to  leave  their  homes  and  move  to 
the  nearest  towns,  where  thousands,  including  helpless 
women  and  children,  died  of  starvation  and  disease.  Sup 
plies  were  voted  by  Congress,  and  also  gathered  from 
private  sources,  to  be  forwarded  to  the  suffering  Cubans. 
A  "junta"  of  Cubans  operated  in  the  United  States 
and  succeeded  in  sending  many  filibustering  expeditions 
with  aid  to  the  insurgents,  though  the  United  States 
Government  exercised  due  diligence  to  prevent  them. 

Public  opinion  in  this  country  gradually  became  ex-  The  de- 
asperated  with  the  apparent  inability  of  Spain  to  conquer  of™^011 
the  Cubans,  and  her  unwillingness  to  grant  terms  that  the  Maine. 
latter  would  accept.     Hostile  feeling  was  increased  when, 
on  February  15,  1898,  the  American  battle-ship  Maine 
was  blown  up  in  the  harbor  of  Havana,  causing  the  death 
of  two  officers  and  264  sailors.     A  Naval  Board  of  In 
quiry  reported  that  the  explosion  came  from  outside,  while 
Spanish  officers,  who  also  examined  the  wreck,  declared 
.that  it  was  internal. 

President  McKinley  undertook  by  diplomacy  to  bring  McKin- 
Spain    and  the  Cubans  to  agree  upon  terms  of  peace,  but  J^y^t  stfate- 
without  success;  the  latter  would  be  satisfied  with  nothing  reasons  for 
less  than  complete  independence.     On  April  11,  1898,  the  j^n™611' 
President  asked  Congress  for  authority  to  take  measures 
that  would  put  an  end  to  the  war  in  Cuba.     Said  he: 
"The  present  revolution  is  but  the  successor  of  other 
similar  insurrections  which  have  occurred  in  Cuba  against 
the  dominion  of  Spain,  extending  over  a  period  of  nearly 
half  a  century,  each  of  which,  during  its  progress,  has 
subjected  the  United  States  to  great  effort  and  expense  in 
enforcing  its  neutrality  laws,  caused  enormous  losses  to 
American  trade  and  commerce,  caused  irritation,  annoy 
ance  and  disturbance  among  our  citizens,  and  by  the  ex 
ercise  of  cruel,  barbarous,   and  uncivilized  practices  of 


500 


American  History 


The  dec 
laration 
of  war. 


War  in  the 
Philip 
pines. 


The 

blockade 
of  Cuban 
ports. 


/FCffiMOSA 


THE 

PHILIPPINE 
ISLANDS 


8  O   U  T 


warfare,  shocked  the  sensibilities  and  offended  the  humane 
sympathies  of  our  people." 

On  April  19,  Congress  demanded  the  withdrawal  of 
Spain  from  Cuba,  and  authorized  the  President  to  use  the 
army  and  navy,  if  necessary,  to  bring  this  about.  A 
formal  declaration  of 
war  followed.  Cuba 
was  recognized  as 
free,  but  the  United 
States  disclaimed  any 
intention  "to  exercise 
sovereignty,  jurisdic 
tion,  or  control  over 
said  island,  except  for 
the  pacification 
thereof."  The  war 
was  thereby  justified 
upon  humanitarian, 
rather  than  selfish, 
grounds. 

On  May  1,  1898, 
Commodore  Dewey, 
who  had  been  sta 
tioned  at  Hong  Kong, 
China,  with  an 
American  squadron, 

captured  or  destroyed  all  of  the  vessels  of  the  Spanish 
fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Manila,  Philippine  Islands.  Later, 
American  troops  captured  the  city  of  Manila. 

The  American  fleet  in  the  Atlantic  blockaded  the  port 
of  Havana,  Cuba,  and  watched  for  the  arrival  of  the 
Spanish  fleet,  which,  it  was  feared,  might  attack  some  of 
the  defenceless  coast  cities.  The  enemy's  fleet,  under 
Admiral  Cervera  moved  with  secrecy,  crossed  the  Atlantic 
and  finally  sailed  into  the  harbor  of  Santiago  de  Cuba. 
The  American  squadron,  commanded  by  Admirals  Samp 
son  and  Schley,  kept  guard,  ready  to  attack  when  it  ap- 


The  Philippine  Islands 


The  Spanish-American  War 


501 


peared.  Lieutenant  Hobson  made  a  daring  attempt  to 
blockade  the  narrow  channel  leading  into  Santiago  harbor 
by  sinking  a  vessel  across  it;  but  he  was  unsuccessful. 

While  these  events  were  occurring,  the  small  regular  army  The  in- 
of  26,000  men  was  supplemented  by  200,000  volunteers.   ™*™  of 
The  War   Department   was  entirely  unprepared  to  cope 
with  the  problems  of  feeding,  equipping,  and  transporting 
these  troops.    There  resulted  much  suffering  and  loss  of  life 
in  the  American  camps  during  the  summer  that  followed. 


The  West  Indies  and  Adjacent  Shores 

An  army  of  15,000,  under  General  Shafter,  was  sent  to 
Cuba,  landing  near  Santiago.  On  July  1  and  2,  1898,  the 
Spanish  troops  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  San  Juan. 
Conspicuous  among  the  American  troops  was  the  cavalry 
regiment,  known  as  the  "Rough  Riders"  commanded  by 
Colonel  Leonard  Wood.  This  regiment  had  been  or 
ganized  by  its  Lieutenant-Colonel,  Theodore  Roosevelt. 


502 


American  History 


The  Span 
ish  fleet 
destroyed. 


The  treaty 
of  peace. 


The  Phil 
ippine 
revolt. 


On  July  3,  the  Spanish  fleet  sailed  out  of  Santiago  harbor, 
was  immediately  attacked,  and  totally  destroyed.  Later, 
the  Spanish  forces  at  Santiago  surrendered.  It  was  now  dis 
covered  that  the  Spanish  fleet  had  been  in  a  demoralized 
condition  previous  to  its  destruction.  The  American  fleet, 
however,  was  in  an  excellent  state  of  efficiency. 

Hostilities  ceased  in  August.  A  treaty  of  ,peace  was 
drawn  up  in  Paris  by  commissioners  of  the  two  countries 
(December,  1898).  This  was  proclaimed  in  effect  April 
11,  1899.  The  treaty  provided  for  the  complete  indepen 
dence  of  Cuba.  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippine  Archipelago 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States,  together 
with  the  island  of  Guam.  The  United  States  paid  Spain 
$20,000,000.  By  this  treaty  Spain  lost  the  last  of  her 
American  colonial  possessions.  The  Government  justi 
fied  its  policy  of  acquiring  the  Philippines  on  the  grounds 
that  Spanish  authority  in  the  Islands  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  insurgents,  assisted  by  American  troops;  that  for 
commercial  reasons  the  Philippines  should  not  fall  into 
the  hands  of  any  other  power;  finally,  that  the  Filipinos 
were  incapable  of  self-government  and  hence  must  be 
ruled  by  adequate  and  humane  authority. 

The  Spanish  war  was  supported  with  great  popular 
enthusiasm*  in  the  United  States.  The  volunteers  greatly 
exceeded  the  ability  of  the  Government  to  use  them. 
The  effect  was  a  remarkable  unification  of  sentiment 
throughout  the  country.  Especially  were  old  antagon 
isms  between  North  and  South  forgotten,  when  such  Con 
federates  as  Generals  Fitzhugh  Lee  and  Joseph  Wheeler 
entered  the  military  service  of  their  country. 

The  leader  of  the  Filipino  insurgents  was  Aguinaldo, 
who  had  been  expelled  from  the  Islands,  but  had  returned 
soon  after  the  battle  of  Manila.  He  commanded  native 
forces  which  besieged  Manila  before  its  capture  by  the 
Americans.  He  now  set  up  a  government  and  contended 
for  Philippine  independence.  A  war  against  the  American 
authority  ensued,  which  lasted  for  about  three  years,  the 


The  Spanish- American  War 


503 


Americans    gradually    bringing    different    islands    under 
control.     In  the  meantime,  civil  government  was  estab-  Material 
lished,  in  the  pacified  sections,  by  the  Philippine  Com-  j^™™ 
mission,  headed  by  Judge  William  H.  Taft.     Schools  and  seif-gov- 
internal  improvements,   such  as   roads,   telegraphs,   and  e 
mail  facilities,  were  promoted.     A  Philippine  Assembly, 
one-half  of  which  was  elected  by  the  natives,  met  for  the 


The  Rough  Riders 

first  time  in  1907.     Thus  these  people  began  the  process 
of  self-government. 

During  the  period  of  American  occupation  in  Cuba,   The  occu- 
much    attention    was    paid    to    sanitary    improvements,   cuba^nd 
especially  in  Havana.     Throughout  the  island,   and  in   the  estab- 
Porto  Rico,    prisons,  hospitals,  and  asylums  were  placed  Of  the 
upon   a  modern   basis   in   equipment   and  management.    Republic. 
Public  schools  were  established.     A   convention   elected 
by  the  Cubans  framed  a  constitution  for  the  Cuban  Re 
public  and  this  was  adopted  in  February,  1901.     Before  it 
went  into  effect,  the  United  States  Government  insisted 


504 


American  History 


The  second 
occupation 
of  Cuba. 


The  ac 
quisition 
of  other 
territory 
in  the 
Pacific. 


upon  the  incorporation  of  certain  provisions  *  safe-guarding 
its  interests  in  Cuba.  The  Republic  was  then  formally  pro 
claimed  (May  20,  1902),  with  President  Palma  at  its  head, 
and  the  American  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  island. 

In  1903  the  United  States  entered  into  a  reciprocity 
treaty  with  Cuba,  admitting  her  sugar  at  a  reduced  tariff 
rate;  while  Cuba  granted  reductions  on  provisions  and 
machinery  from  the  United  States. 

The  proneness  of  the  Cubans  to  engage  in  factional 
quarrels,  running  into  violence,  was  shown  after  the 
second  election  of  President  Palma  and  his  reinauguration 
in  1906.  Accusations  of  fraud  in  the  election  were  made, 
and  Palma  resigned.  The  Cuban  Congress  failed  in  its 
duty  of  electing  his  successor,  and,  there  being  danger  of 
further  disturbance,  the  United  States  Government  sent 
troops  to  Cuba  and  assumed  control.  Secretary  of  War 
Taft  was  named  as  Provincial  Governor.  In  January, 
1909,  our  Government  again  withdrew  its  control,  a  new 
Cuban  administration  having  been  established. 

In  1889  the  United  States  signed  the  treaty  of  Berlin, 
engaging  to  cooperate  with  England  and  Germany  in 
the  maintenance  of  peace  and  order  in  the  Samoan  Islands. 
Insurrections  against  the  native  rulers  continued  after  this 
date,  however,  and  President  Cleveland  recommended  the 
discontinuance  of  the  arrangement.  The  situation  was 
finally  adjusted  in  1899  by  a  treaty  under  which  the  Sa 
moan  Islands  were  divided  between  this  country  and 
Germany.  Our  Government  acquired  four  islands,  the 
largest  being  Tutuila,  with  a  harbor,  Pago  Pago,  which 
is  one  of  the  best  in  the  Pacific. 

In  these  years  other  islands  of  the  Pacific,  hitherto  un 
claimed,  were  occupied  by  the  United  States.  By  the 
territorial  acquisitions  mentioned  above,  and  the  annex 
ation  of  Hawaii,  the  commercial  opportunities  of  the 
United  States  in  the  countries  bordering  upon  the  Pacific 
were  distinctly  increased. 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  324. 


506  American  History 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Books  dealing  with  the  Spanish  war.     Draper,  The  Rescue 
of  Cuba.     Roosevelt,  The  Rough  Riders.     (See  also  articles  in 
Scribner's  Magazine,  Vol.  XXV.)  Kennan,  Campaigning  in  Cuba. 

2.  Special  references.     Latane",  America  as  a  World  Power, 
6-19.     Elson,  History  of  the  United  States,  889-902;  Sidelights 
on  American  History,  II,  352-401. 

3.  Hart,    Contemporaries,    IV.    Reasons    for    the    Spanish 
War,  No.  180.     Dewey's  report  on  the  battle  of  Manila  Bay, 
No.  182.     Arguments  against  holding  the  Philippines,  No.  191. 

4.  Larned,  History  for  Ready  Reference,  Cuba,  1897.    The 
Constitution  granted  by  Spain  to  Cuba,  1897-1898.     Consul- 
General  Lee's  report    on    the    "reconcentrados."     Ibid.    The 
United  States,  1898.     Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Court  of 
Inquiry  on  the  Maine.     McKinley's  message  to  Congress  of 
April  11. 

5.  In  Scribner's  Magazine,  Vol.  XXIV,  are  a  number  of  illus 
trated  articles  descriptive  of  the  Spanish  war,  by  various  authors. 
See  also,  Century  Magazine,  New  Series,  Vols.  XXXIV,  XXXV, 
XXXVI. 

6.  Compare  the  Cubans  in  their  struggle  against  Spain  with 
the  English  colonists  in  the  Revolutionary  War.     Compare  the 
latter  with  Aguinaldo's  supporters  in  the  Philippines. 

7.  What  are  now  the  policies  of  the  great  political  parties  on 
the  subject  of  Philippine  independence?    Which  is  right? 

8.  On  the  Philippine  and  Cuban  relations,  see  Government 
in  State  and  Nation,  pp.  321-324.     On  the  power  to  acquire  and 
govern  territory,  ibid.,  325-327.     References,  ibid.,  335. 

9.  James  and  Mann,  Readings  on  American  History,  chap.  30. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

THE  OPENING  OF  A  NEW  ERA 

THE  period  of  industrial  depression  that  began  with  the  The  eiec- 
panic  of  1893  was  followed  by  one  of  the  most  remarkable  1900.° 
eras  of  prosperity  that  our  country  has  known.  This 
fact,  and  the  popularity  of  the  McKinlev  administration, 
due  in  part  to  the  success  of  the  Spanish  war,  made  the 
election  of  1900  an  easy  victory  for  the  Republicans. 
William  McKinley  was  again  their  candidate.  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  who  was  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency,* 
had  aroused  popular  admiration  by  his  part  in  the  Spanish 
war  and  deserved  great  credit  for  his  work  as  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  in  putting  that  branch  of  the  service 
into  a  state  of  efficiency.  The  Republicans  stood  squarely 
upon  the  gold  standard  policy,  while  the  Democrats  re 
peated  their  free  silver  plank  of  1896;  this  was  demanded 
by  William  Jennings  Bryan  as  a  condition  of  his  acceptance 
of  the  nomination  for  President. 

It  was  apparent,  however,  that  the  silver  issue  was  dis 
appearing;  for  rich  gold  deposits  had  been  discovered  in 
the  Klondike  region  of  Canada  and  Alaska  (1896-1897), 
and  the  influx  of  this  metal  resulted  in  an  increased  supply 
of  money.f  Better  prices  and  activity  in  all  industries 

*  Roosevelt  had  been  elected  Governor  of  New  York.  His  nomination 
for  the  Vice-Presidency  was  insisted  upon  by  "machine"  politicians  of 
that  State  who  feared  his  influence  and  desired  his  removal  to  a  station 
where  he  would  have  little  power. 

t  The  amount  of  money  in  circulation  rose  from  $22.82  per  capita  in 
1890  to  $23.24  in  1895  and  $26.93  in  1900. 

507 


508 


American  History 


followed  with  the  return  of  business  confidence.  In  view 
of  this  fact,  the  Democrats  announced  that  ''imperialism" 
— i.  e.y  the  acquisition  and  permanent  control  of  the  Philip 
pines — was  the  paramount  issue.  They  demanded  the  inde 
pendence  of  our  new  possessions.  The  appeal  to  this  issue 
failed  to  arouse  enthusiasm,  as  both  parties  were  divided 
upon  it  within  their  own  ranks.  The  popular  vote  in 


©  Center  of  Population 
*  of'Manufa 


KEN 


Movement  of  Centers  of  Population  and  Manufactures,  1790-1900 


The  death 
of  Presi 
dent  Mc- 
Kinley. 


this  election  was:     Republicans,  7,206,000;    Democrats, 
6,334,000. 

Six  months  after  his  second  inauguration,  President 
McKinley  was  shot  (September  6,  1901)  by  an  anarchist, 
Czolgosz.  This  occurred  at  Buffalo,  while  the  President 
was  holding  a  public  reception  at  the  Pan-American 
Exposition,  then  in  progress.  His  death  occurred  a  few 
days  later. 

McKinley  had  endeared  himself  to  the  people  by  personal 
qualities  of  graciousness  and  tact,  and  by  his  blameless  private 
life.  He  was  an  astute  politician,  who  won  the  respect  of  his 
opponents.  His  political  fortunes  had  been  under  the  guidance 
of  Mark  Hanna,  a  wealthy  manufacturer  of  Cleveland,  who 
brought  "business  methods"  into  the  management  of  political 
campaigns. 


photograph,  copyright  1907,  by  Clinedinst 

Theodore  Roosevelt 


510 


American  History 


Roosevelt's 
popularity. 


The  elec 
tion  of 
1904. 


Mr.  Roosevelt  soon  displayed  an  aggressive  individuality 
which  placed  him  among  the  few  remarkable  men  who  have 
occupied  the  Presidency.  His  acts  aroused  sharp  criticism. 
But  he  won  popular  adherence,  such  as  few  men  in  our 
history  have  been  accorded,  by  his  vigorous  foreign  policy, 
his  efforts  in  the  direction  of  official  purity,  his  opposition 
to  oppressive  capitalistic  combinations,  and  especially  by 
his  striking  personality.* 

To  Roosevelt's  popularity  as  the  Republican  candidate 
for  President  was  largely  due  the  overwhelming  victory  of 
that  party  in  the  election  of  1904.  The  continuance  of  in 
dustrial  prosperity  had  removed  the  silver  issue  completely, 
and  the  Democrats  did  not  mention  it  in  their  platform. 
The  conservative  Eastern  wing  of  that  party  was  now  dom 
inant,  and  Judge  Alton  B.  Parker,  of  New  York,  became 
their  candidate.  On  the  question  of  imperialism  there  was 
slight  difference  between  the  parties.  The  country  at  large 
had  accepted  the  colonial  policy  as  inevitable  for  at  least  a 
considerable  period  of  time;  but  both  parties  spoke  for 
the  ultimate  independence  of  the  Philippines.  Both  parties 
spoke  also  for  revision  of  the  tariff,  the  Democrats  taking 
the  more  radical  position.  The  Republicans  classed  com 
binations  of  capital  and  labor  together  as  subject  to  legal 
restraint  when  they  became  dangerous  to  private  rights. 
The  Democrats  were  especially  emphatic  against  the 
trusts.  In  the  election  the  Democrats  carried  only  the 
Southern  states.  Their  popular  vote  was  5,077,000;  the 
Republican  candidates  receiving  7,623,000. 

The  Spanish  war  marks  an  epoch  in  the  foreign  relations 
of  the  United  States;  then  began  its  increasing  activity  in 
international  affairs  and  its  recognition  as  a  "world  power." 

*  "  Of  gentle  birth  and  breeding,  yet  a  man  of  the  people  in  the  best 
sense;  with  the  training  of  a  scholar  and  the  breezy  accessibility  of  a 
ranchman;  a  man  of  the  library  and  a  man  of  the  world;  an  athlete  and 
a  thinker;  a  soldier  and  a  statesman;  a  reader,  a  writer,  and  a  maker 
of  history;  with  the  sensibility  of  a  poet  and  the  steel  nerve  of  a  rough 
rider;  one  who  never  did,  and  who  never  could,  turn  his  back  on  a  friend 
or  on  an  enemy."  Addresses  of  John  Hay,  p.  289. 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era  511 

Our  country  had  not  previously  been  without  influence  in 
foreign  affairs,  and  its  attitude  had  already  begun  to  be 
aggressive  in  purely  American  relations   (p.  470).     But  Our  new 
the  brilliant  achievements  of  our  navy  in  the  war  with  foreign 
Spain  and  the  recent  impressive  growth  of  our  industries 
(see  p.  517)  served  to  call  attention  to  our  position  as  a 


Machine  which  Reaps,  Threshes,  and  Bags  Grain  at  the  Same  Time 

nation  of  great  power  in  world  politics.  This  power  was 
exerted  first  in  the  Orient,  following  logically  upon  the 
acquisition  of  the  Philippines.  This  acquisition  had  been 
made  chiefly  in  view  of  the  industrial  situation  in  China. 

Our  manufacturers  had  there  a  great  market'  for  their  cotton   The  con- 
goods,  which  they  were  desirous  of  extending.     At  this  time   test  in 
strife  arose  among  European  nations  for  trade  advantages  in   Cnma« 
China.     England,  France,  Russia,  Germany,  and  Italy  were  de 
manding  for  their  citizens  concessions,  leases,  franchises,  and 
special  trade  privileges  in  various  parts  of  that  country.     Gradu 
ally,  "spheres  of  influence"  covering  certain  regions  were  ac 
quired,  and  it  seemed  probable  that  China  would  be  partitioned 


512 


American  History 


Hay's  de 
mand  for 
the  "open 
door." 


Influence 
exerted  in 
Oriental 
politics. 


In  the 
Peace  Con 
ferences. 


among  the  European  powers,  as  Africa  had  been  in  the  previous 
decade.  This  would  be  a  blow  to  our  export  trade.  Now,  the 
acquisition  of  the  Philippines  gave  us  a  vantage-point  from 
which  we  could  consistently  exert  influence  in  Oriental  affairs. 

In  September,  1899,  Secretary  of  State  John  Hay  ad 
dressed  a  note  to  the  European  powers  interested,  asking 
recognition  of  the  policy  of  the  "open  door";  i.  e.,  that  no 
power  should  exclude  the  citizens  of  other  nations  from 
equal  trade  rights  within  its  sphere  of  influence  in  China. 
Without  winning  complete  acceptance  from  all  the  nations, 
the  justice  of  this  policy  was  in  the  main  approved. 

During  the  following  year  came  the  Boxer  Rebellion, 
in  which  there  were  massacres  of  Europeans  and  Amer 
icans.  When  the  legations  of  the  civilized  nations  were 
besieged  in  Peking,  troops  of  the  United  States  took  part 
in  the  expedition  that  marched  to  their  relief.  Seizure  of 
Chinese  territory  as  indemnity  might  have  followed,  but 
Secretary  Hay  brought  the  influence  of  this  country  to  bear 
in  securing  guarantees  of  the  territorial  integrity  of  China 
and  equal  trade  rights  in  its  ports. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  Japan  and  Russia, 
in  1904,  the  United  States  secured  pledges  from  those 
nations  that  Chinese  neutrality  would  be  observed,  and  that 
the  operations  of  the  war  would  be  confined  to  Manchuria. 
In  1905,  President  Roosevelt  appealed  directly  to  the 
belligerents  in  favor  of  a  cessation  of  the  war.  W7ith  great 
diplomatic  skill  he  brought  them  to  begin  negotiations  for 
peace,  and  his  personal  influence  was  exerted  in  bringing 
to  a  successful  termination  the  peace  negotiations  at  Ports 
mouth,  New  Hampshire. 

The  United  States  sent  representatives  to  the  Peace 
Conference  called  by  the  Czar  of  Russia,  which  met  at  The 
Hague  in  1899,*  and  also  to  the  second  Conference  in  1907. 
Upon  these  occasions  our  policy  favored  the  widest  possible 
application  of  the  principle  of  international  arbitration. 
The  first  dispute  to  be  appealed  to  the  permanent  Tribunal 
*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  355-356. 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era  513 

of  Arbitration  was  one  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  (1902).  More  recently  treaties  have  been  made 
between  our  country  and  Great  Britain,  France,  and  a 
number  of  other  nations,  to  submit  certain  disputes  to 
arbitration  by  the  Hague  Tribunal  before  resorting  to 
force.* 

In  the  above  events  we  see  the  beginnings  of  a  foreign 
policy  which  has  been  exerted  in  favor  of  justice,  humanity, 
and  peace  in  international  relations.  Great  Britain  has 
supported  our  Government  in  this  policy,  and  the  relations 
of  these  nations  have  become  more  friendly  in  consequence. 
The  acquisition  of  the  Philippines  and  our  "open  door" 
policy  have  been  distinctly  favorable  to  England's  com 
mercial  interests. 

In  its  relations  with  other  American  powers  the  United   The  new 
States   has    maintained   its    leadership.     A   second    Pan-   Doctrine. 
American  congress  was  held  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  in  1901, 
followed  by  another  at  Rio  Janeiro  (1906).     At  various 
times  European   nations  have  engaged  in  controversies 
with  South  American  states  over  the  payment  of  debts 
due  the  citizens  of  the  former.     The  question  has  then 
arisen,  to  what  extent  shall  the  United  States  permit  the 
use  of  force  against  the  debtor  nations  ? 

The  wider  application  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  under  President 
Cleveland  (p.  486),  looking  toward  the  maintenance  of  the  rights 
of  the  weaker  American  nations,  has  been  followed  by  recogni 
tion  of  our  obligation  to  secure  the  performance  of  duties  by 
those  nations.  Said  President  Roosevelt  (1905):  "We  cannot 
permanently  adhere  to  the  Monroe  Doctrine  unless  we  succeed  in 
making  it  evident,  in  the  first  place,  that  we  do  not  intend  to  treat 
it  in  any  shape  or  way  as  an  excuse  for  aggrandizement  on  our 
part  at  the  expense  of  the  Republics  to  the  south  of  us;  second, 
that  we  do  not  intend  to  permit  it  to  be  used  by  any  of  these  Re 
publics  as  a  shield  to  protect  that  Republic  from  the  consequences 

*  "Eighteen  years  ago  international  arbitration  was  little  more  than 
a  hope;  to-day  it  is  an  accepted  policy;  and  since  this  country  has 
already  made  twelve  specific  special  agreements  for  arbitration,  there 
is  every  ground  to  believe  that  as  time  passes  the  Senate  will  view  this 
policy  more  and  more  broadly."  The  Nation,  86:390. 


514 


American  History 


Early 


projects. 


of  its  own  misdeeds  against  foreign  nations;  third,  that  inasmuch 
as  by  this  doctrine  we  prevent  other  nations  from  interfering  on 
this  side  of  the  water,  we  shall  ourselves  in  good  faith  try  to  help 
those  of  our  sister  Republics,  which  need  such  help,  upward 
toward  peace  and  order." 

The  history  of  the  Panama  Canal  exemplifies  the  new 
aggressive  policy  of  this  country  in  its  world  relations,  as 
well  as  our  expanding  industrial  interests.  In  1850,  by  the 


Panama  Canal  and  United  States  Canal  Strip 

Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  (p.  335),  the  United  States  and 
England  agreed  to  renounce  the  right  to  acquire  indepen 
dent  control  of  any  isthmian  canal  route.  As  early  as  the 
administration  of  President  Hayes  this  policy  was  con 
demned  by  officers  of  our  Government.  When,  in  the 
next  decade,  a  French  company  began  the  construction 
of  a  canal  at  Panama,*  the  demand  for  a  canal  under  the 
control  of  this  country  became  urgent.  Efforts  to  bring 
about  the  formal  abrogation  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty 
were  unsuccessful.  Several  surveys  were  authorized,  how 
ever,  especially  with  a  view  to  establishing  a  route  through 

*  Projected  by  Ferdinand  De  Lesseps,  who  constructed  the  Suez  Canal. 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era  515 

Nicaragua.     Then  occurred  the  Spanish  war,  during  which 
the  warship  Oregon  was  obliged  to  make  its  long  journey 
from  San  Francisco  around  Cape  Horn  in  order  to  join  the  The 
Atlantic  Squadron.     This  incident  attracted  attention  to  demand 
the  difficulty  of  defending  the  two  coasts  of  our  country, 
and  the  demand  for  a  canal  became  irresistible. 

In  1899,  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  was  appointed 
to  examine  routes,  and  they  recommended  that  through 


At  Work  on  the  Panama  Canal  in  the  Culebra  Cut 

Nicaragua.  In  the  meantime,  an  American  company  had 
acquired  the  property  of  the  French  Panama  Canal  Com 
pany,  whose  undertaking  had  ended  some  ten  years  earlier  obstacles 
in  bankruptcy.  This  property  was  now  offered  for  sale  removed, 
to  the  United  States.  Secretary  Hay,  after  much  diplo 
matic  delay,  and  the  rejection  of  one  treaty,  finally  secured 
the  abrogation  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  (1901).  The 
United  States  was  now  free  to  proceed  to  construct  and 
own  an  Isthmian  canal  which  should  be  free  to  the  use  of 
all  nations,  both  in  peace  and  in  war.  As  this  country 
alone  was  to  guarantee  the  neutral  use  and  the  defence  of 
the  canal,  it  is  practically  unrestricted  in  its  control. 


516 


American  History 


Congress  now  passed  the  Spooner  Act  (1902),  providing 
for  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  on  the  condition 
that  favorable  terms  could  be  secured  from  the  canal 
company  and  from  Colombia,  through  whose  territory  it 
was  to  run;  otherwise,  the  Nicaragua  route  was  to  be  used. 

A  treaty  was  next  made  with  Colombia,  providing  for  a 
$10,000,000  payment  and  an  annuity  of  $250,000  in  con 
sideration  for  the  control  by  the  United  States  of  a  six- 
mile  strip  across  the  Isthmus.  This  treaty  was  rejected 
by  the  Colombian  Congress,  evidently  as  a  means  of  ob 
taining  better  terms.  This  occasioned  a  revolution  among 
the  disappointed  inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Panama; 
they  declared  themselves  independent  of  Colombia,  and 
set  up  a  government.  Their  independence  was  recog 
nized  by  President  Roosevelt  three  days  later.*  Within 
two  weeks  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  new  Republic  of 
Panama,  by  which  our  Government  secured  control  in 
perpetuity  of  a  ten-mile  strip  across  the  Isthmus.  The 
Panama  Canal  property  was  purchased  for  $40,000,000. 
The  estimated  cost  for  the  completion  of  the  work  being 
$144,000,000  additional,  Congress  appropriated  $10,000,- 
000  at  once  and  authorized  the  issuance  of  $130,000,000 
in  bonds.  A  Canal  Commission  was  appointed,  and  the 
work  of  putting  the  Canal  Zone  into  sanitary  condition  and 
of  digging  the  canal  proceeded  at  once. 

The  reign  of  prosperity  already  referred  to  (p.  507) 
affected  all  branches  of  industry.  Farmers  received  better 
prices  for  their  crops,  manufacturers  turned  out  an  in- 

*  Severe  criticism  was  launched  against  the  administration  for  this 
hasty  recognition  and  for  the  sending  of  United  States  troops  to  prevent 
the  use  of  force  by  Colombia  in  the  vicinity  of  the  canal.  Roosevelt 
based  his  action  upon  a  treaty  of  1846  between  the  United  States  and 
Colombia  (then  New  Granada)  by  which  the  former  was  to  guarantee 
the  freedom  of  the  canal  route  from  hostile  demonstrations  that  would 
prevent  its  free  use.  He  justified  it  further  upon  the  ground  that  Co 
lombia's  attitude  was  mercenary,  and  that  the  interests  of  the  civilized 
world  demanded  the  immediate  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  by 
the  United  States. 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era  517 

creased  product,  laborers  were  paid  better  wages  and  thus 
furnished  demand  for  still  more  products  of  all  kinds. 
With  this  demand,  prices  rose  and  the  cost  of  living  in 
creased  greatly.  A  most  striking  evidence  of  our  in 
dustrial  growth  was  found  in  the  exportation  of  our  manu 
factures  to  European  countries,  whose  markets  were  thus 
invaded.  The  United  States  then  took  rank  as  the  greatest 
exporting  nation  of  the  wrorld. 

Besides  the  wealth  of  our  natural  resources  and  the   Further 
energy   of  our  people,    the   remarkable   capacity   of   the   SUJf^™ 
American  people  for  business  organization  accounts  for  industry. 


The  Vanderbilt  Railroad  System 

this  result.  The  principle  of  concentration  in  industry 
(see  p.  472)  was  now  carried  to  its  greatest  extent.  Every 
effort  was  made  to  economize  in  production  by  eliminating 
waste  and  unnecessary  duplication  at  all  points.  Be 
ginning  in  1898,  there  seemed  to  be  a  mania  for  the  forma 
tion  of  trusts  and  combinations.  Indeed,  this  tendency 
went  to  extremes,  and  the  stocks  of  many  fraudulent 
" syndicates"  were  sold  to  the  public. 


518 


American  History 


State  and 
National 
prosecu 
tion  of 
trusts  and 
railroads. 


The  greatest  combination  formed  was  the  United  States  Steel 
Corporation,  with  a  capitalization  of  $1,400,000,000,  unifying 
the  interests  of  eight  corporations  owning  149  plants  and  pro 
ducing  three-fourths  of  the  steel  product  of  the  country.  The 
same  tendency  was  seen  in  the  consolidation  of  all  the  important 
railroad  lines  in  the  country  into  a  few  great  "systems." 

These  combinations  indicated  not  only  concentration  of  owner 
ship,  but,  more  especially,  concentration  of  control.  For  while 
the  great  corporations  had  thousands  of  stockholders,  yet  their 
control  rested  in  the  hands  of  a  comparatively  few  men  (such  as 
Rockefeller,  Carnegie,  Morgan,  Rogers,  Gould,  Vanderbilt,  Hill, 
and  Harriman),  who  thus  possessed  immense  influence  over  the 
business  interests  of  the  country.* 

The  progress  of  capitalistic  combinations  was  met  by 
greater  efforts  to  prevent  trusts  and  by  the  passage  of  laws 
in  various  States  controlling  railroads  more  strictly  and 
fixing  their  rates.  Under  President  Roosevelt,  especially, 
the  Government  actively  prosecuted  violators  of  Federal 


U.S. 

u  s 

II 

FRANCE 

n 

RUSSIA 

•••i                                                                                                   /I0 

11 

Steel  Productions,  1903 

laws  upon  these  subjects  and  secured  favorable  decisions 
in  some  important  cases,  notably  those  of  the  Northern 
Securities  Company  f  and  the  beef  trust.  There  were 
numerous  convictions  under  the  anti-rebate  law,  the  most 
important  being  that  under  which  fines  aggregating 
$29,240,000  were  imposed  upon  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
by  a  United  States  District  Court  presided  over  by  Judge 

*  It  is  said  that  the  men  composing  the  board  of  directors  of  the 
United  States  Steel  Corporation  had  (1908)  controlling  influence  in 
corporations  that  own  one-twelfth  of  the  wealth  in  the  United  States. 
World's  Work,  VII,  4259. 

t  A  corporation  uniting  the  Northern  Pacific,  Great  Northern,  and 
Burlington  Railroads  under  one  management, 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era  519 

Landis  and  sitting  at  Chicago.*  In  1906,  Congress  passed 
a  new  Interstate  Commerce  Law,  reorganizing  the  Com 
mission  and  giving  it  the  power  to  fix  rates,  though  the  rail 
roads  retain  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  courts.  Pipe  lines, 
sleeping-car  companies,  and  express  companies  were  made 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  law.  Railroad  companies 
were  forbidden  to  engage  in  any  other  business. 

Labor  now  made  its  greatest  progress  in  the  direction  of  The  prog- 
organization.     The  American  Federation  of  Labor   (see  [abor°or- 
p.  453)  acquired  a  membership  in  1905  of  2,000,000.     Its  ganiza- 
policy  was  soon  directed  toward  securing  favorable  labor 
legislation  by  exerting  political  influence  for  the  defeat  of 
candidates  who  opposed  their  demands.     A  department 
of  Commerce  and  Labor  was  established  by  Congress  in 
1903-t 

The  United  Mine  Workers,  including  147,000  men  working  in   The  coal 
the  anthracite  coal-fields,  struck,  in  1902,  for  higher  wages  and    strike  of 
better  conditions.     The  mine-owners  |  refused  to  arbitrate  the    l 
question  in  dispute.     A  coal  famine  seemed  inevitable.     Presi 
dent  Roosevelt  voiced  the  demands  of  public  sentiment,  which 
was  becoming  outraged  at  the  prospect,  and  the  operators  finally 
agreed  to  submit  the  controversy  to  settlement  by  a  commission 
appointed  by  him.     The  decision  was  a  victory  for  the  miners. 

Another  aspect  of  the  country's  labor  problem  is  seen  in  immigra- 
the  increase  and  changed  character  of  immigration.  In  1903,   tion* 
Congress  increased   the  head-tax  upon   immigrants,  and 
enacted  stricter  regulations  excluding  undesirable  classes, 
especially  anarchists.     Later,  ability  to  read  and  write  was 
required  of  immigrants  who  wished  to  become  naturalized, 
and  the  process  of  making  citizens  was  more  carefully 
regulated. 

*  The  judgment  in  this  case  was  reversed  by  the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals. 

t  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  297-298. 

t  Some  six  railroad  companies  own  the  greater  part  of  the  anthracite 
coal  deposit  and  control  the  price  absolutely.  The  President  of  the 
United  Mine  Workers  was  John  Mitchell,  "  the  ablest  labor  leader  America 
had  produced."  Equally  able  and  influential  was  Samuel  Gompers,  presi 
dent  for  twenty  years  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 


520 


American  History 


Industrial 
awakening 
in  the 
South. 


The  negro 
popula 
tion. 


A  Cotton  Mill,  Augusta,  Ga. 


In  1905  and  succeeding  years  the  number  of  immigrants 
became  more  than  one  million  annually.  Of  these  nearly 
three-fourths  came  from  southern  and  eastern  Europe.  The 
country  is  thus  confronted  by  a  great  problem  in  the  proper 
distribution  and  complete  assimilation  of  these  peoples. 

The  industrial  advance  of  the  South  was  a  striking 
feature  of  the  period  under  review.  The  vast  mineral, 
coal,  and  forest  resources 
of  the  Southern  States, 
and  its  water  power,  were 
now  exploited  as  never 
before.  Manufactures 
increased  fifty  per  cent, 
between  1900  and  1906. 
In  cotton  manufacture, 
especially,  the  advance 
was  rapid,  the  South  con- 
verting  one-third  of  its 
crop  into  finished  prod 
ucts.  The  entire  Piedmont  region,  from  Virginia  to 
Georgia,  was  rapidly  becoming  a  manufacturing  section. 
There  began,  too,  the  more  complete  occupation  of  the 
soil,  and  more  intelligent  farming,  the  raising  of  garden 
produce  and  fruits  receiving  particular  attention.  The 
South  also  entered  upon  a  period  of  educational  improve 
ment. 

The  negro  felt  the  effects  of  the  changes  noted  above. 
The  industrial  relations  of  blacks  and  whites  were  im 
proved  by  the  influence  of  industrial  schools  for  negroes. 
Chief  among  these  is  Tuskegee  Institute  (Alabama),  under 
the  principalship  of  Booker  T.  Washington,  the  acknowl 
edged  leader  of  the  negro  race.  The  social  relations  be 
tween  whites  and  negroes  were  frequently  disturbed  by 
"race  riots,"  some  of  which  occurred  in  Northern  States. 
Politically,  the  negro  continued  to  be  debarred  from  voting 
and  office-holding.  Beginning  in  1890,  most  of  the 
Southern  States  adopted  constitutions  requiring  educa- 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era 


521 


tional  and  property  qualifications  for  suffrage.*  Thus  the 
observance  of  legal  forms  took  the  place  of  the  violence  of 
former  times  (see  pp.  432-433). 

In  the  Far  West,  this  period  witnessed  the  rapid  growth  The  Far 
of  cities  and  substantial  industrial  advance.  The  cattle 
ranch  was  supplemented  by  intensive  agriculture  and  fruit 
raising.  This  was  encouraged  by  the  irrigation  of  arid 
lands.  Besides  private  and  State  irrigation  systems,  Con 
gress  provided  for  the  construction  of  reservoirs  and  ditches 
with  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  public  lands. f 

Congress  authorized  the  formation  of  two  new  States  in   Oklahoma, 
the  West,  by  the  union  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and   1907' 
of  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma.     The  inhabitants  of 
the  latter  territories  agreed  to  this  plan,  and  the  State  of 
Oklahoma  was  admitted  in  1907. 

Accompanying  our  great  industrial  advance,  the  public  Reform  in 
conscience  has  been  awakened  to  demand  remedies  for  JJJ^8^1 
abuses  that  are  possible  under  our  present  industrial 
system.  Laws  have  been  enacted  in  many  States  limiting 
the  age  and  conditions  of  child  labor;  and  a  demand  has 
been  raised  for  Congressional  action  upon  this  subject. 
Legislation  prohibiting  food  adulteration  and  the  false 
labelling  of  packages,  and  providing  for  the  inspection  of 
factories  and  packing-houses,  has  been  general.  In  1905 
there  was  an  investigation  by  the  State  of  New  York  of 
the  methods  used  by  the  great  life  insurance  companies. 
This  resulted  in  revelations  of  loose  and  pernicious  busi 
ness  methods  (not,  however,  confined  to  this  class  of  com 
panies),  formerly  winked  at,  but  now  condemned  by  public 
opinion.  In  this  period,  then,  we  have  seen  the  beginnings 
of  a  higher  standard  of  business  morality. 

In  political  matters,  as  well,  public  standards  have  been  Political 
rising.     About  1890  the  use  of  the  Australian  ballot  system  J^Sne^ 
became  general,  and  thus  the  purchase  of  votes  became 
more  difficult.     But  this  reform  did  not  eliminate  the  evils 


*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  49,  142-143. 
t  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  334. 


522  American  History 

of  machine  politics.  State  laws  were  extended  to  the  con 
trol  of  party  affairs,  with  severer  punishments  for  corrupt 
practices,  the  control  of  lobbying,  and  the  requirement  of 
publicity  for  campaign  expenses.  In  a  few  States  the 
primary  election  system  was  put  into  operation.  Public 
officers  won  popular  approval,  in  numerous  States  and 
cities,  by  their  activity  in  revealing  "graft"  and  by  their 
fearless  enforcement  of  the  law.  Municipal  government 
improved  greatly  in  this  period. 

Business  These  reforms  were  made  possible  by  the  increase  of  in- 

poiitics  dependent  voting  in  State  and  city-  politics.  Politicians 
must  now  reckon,  as  never  before,  with  the  demand  of  the 
average  citizen  for  honesty  in'  public  service.  The  influ 
ence  of  corporations  in  governmental  affairs  has  received  a 
check,  and  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  the  more  com 
plete  control  of  public  utilities,  and  for  the  public  owner 
ship  of  them  in  cities.  The  prominence  of  the  moral  ele 
ment  in  the  business  and  political  reforms  mentioned  above 
characterizes  this  as  an  era  of  "awakened  civic  conscience." 
Both  moral  and  economic  considerations  may  be  seen  in 
the  protest  against  the  excessive  use  of  liquors  that  has 
resulted  in  the  prohibition  of  liquor  selling  in  a  number  of 
States  and  parts  of  States,  especially  in  the  South. 
Educa-  Educationally,  the  past  decade  has  seen  increased  atten- 

move-  *i°n  Pa*d  to  ^e  industrial  and  practical  aspects  of  school 
ments.  work.  Courses  in  manual  training  and  domestic  science 
are  now  believed  to  be  necessary  for  the  complete  develop 
ment  of  mind  and  body.  Commercial  courses  and  trade 
schools  fit  for  definite  careers.  Physical  education  receives 
greater  attention.  And  the  mass  of  people  now  seek  out 
door  life  and  recreation  as  never  before  in  our  history. 
The  establishment  of  public  libraries,  aided  by  the  munifi 
cent  gifts  of  Andrew  Carnegie,  has  been  rapid.  The  rural 
free  delivery  system  and  the  increased  use  of  telephones 
and  interurban  car  lines  have  revolutionized  farm  life  and 
have  added  greatly  to  the  comfort  and  intelligence  of  the 
masses. 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era 


523 


In  December,  1907,  the  Atlantic  fleet  of  our  navy,  com-  The  great 
prising  sixteen  war-ships  and  a  flotilla  of  torpedo-boats,   Bruise 
began  a  cruise  around  the  world.     No  such  array  of  war- 
vessels  had  ever  before  been  sent  upon  so  long  a  voyage. 
The  conduct  of  the  fleet  constituted  an  excellent  test  of  its 
efficiency;   and  the  event  was  considered  as  significant  of 
America's  position  in  world  politics. 

The  following  statistics  indicate  the  growth  of  manufactures: 


ESTABLISH 
MENTS 

CAPITAL 

PERSONS 
EMPLOYED 

VALUE    OF 
PRODUCT 

1890 
1900 
1905 

355,000 

512,000 
533,000 

$6,525,000,000 
9,817,000,000 
13,872,000,000 

4,712,000 
5,705,000 
6,723,000 

$9,372,000,000 
13,004,000,000 
16,866,000,000 

IRON    AND    STEEL 

PRICES 

MANUFACTURES 

TOTAL    EXPORTS 

(DUN'S  INDEX 

EXPORTED 

NUMBERS) 

1890 

$25,000,000 

$884,000,000 

91.55 

1895 

32,000,000 

807,000,000 

81.52 

1900 

121,000,000 

1,394,000,000 

91.41 

1905 

134,728,000 

1,518,000,000 

98.31 

1907 

181,000,000 

1,880,000,000 

•     108.95 

In  May,  1908,  there  met  at  Washington,  upon  the  re-  Our 
quest  of  President  Roosevelt,  a  conference  to  consider  the  riources. 
conservation  of  our  natural  resources.  It  included  the 
governors  of  the  States  and  other  eminent  men.  This 
movement  was  a  recognition  of  the  extremely  wasteful 
methods  that  have  been  employed  in  the  use  of  our  soil, 
mines,  forests,  and  water  supply.  Having  now  definitely 
passed  beyond  the  pioneer  stage  of  our  history,  we  must 
conserve  our  natural  resources;  our  industries  must  be 
developed  intensively,  rather  than  extensively.  Included 
in  this  movement  is  the  proposal  to  improve  our  water-ways, 
as  an  undeveloped  resource,  and  as  a  means  of  competi 
tion  with  railroads.  A  ship  route  between  Lake  Michigan 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  especially  favored. 

Anticipating  the  Presidential  election    of   1908,   there 


524 


American  History 


The  elec 
tion  of 
1908. 


Party 
nomina 
tions. 


The  plat 
forms. 


was  a  strong  popular  demand  that  President  Roosevelt  be 
nominated  for  a  third  term.  This  he  most  emphatically 
declined,  but  instead  exerted  influence  which  resulted  in 
the  nomination  of  his  Secretary  of  War,  William  H.  Taft, 
by  the  Republican  convention  at  Chicago.  Roosevelt  and 
Taft  represented  an  element 
of  their  party  which  de 
manded  ' '  progressive ' '  or 
"reform"  legislation;  the 
other  wing  of  the  Republicans 
(known  as  " standpatters") 
were  represented  upon  the 
ticket  by  James  S.  Sherman 
of  New  York,  candidate  for 
Vice-President. 

The  main  portion  of  the 
Democratic  party  rallied  to 
the  support  of  Bryan,  who 
had  retained  remarkable  pop 
ularity,  especially  in  the  West. 
He  had  profited  by  the  defeat 
of  his  party  in  1904,  when  it  William  H.  Taft 

was  under  the  dominance  of 

its  Eastern  conservative  wing.  Bryan  was  nominated  on  the 
first  ballot  of  the  Democratic  convention  at  Denver,  and 
John  W.  Kern  of  Indiana  was  made  candidate  for  Vice- 
President. 

The  Democratic  platform  was  more  radical  than  the 
Republican  in  its  demand  for  tariff  revision  and  in  its 
concession  to  the  demand  of  labor  unions  for  anti-injunction 
legislation.*  It  demanded  the  publicity  of  campaign  ex 
penses  f  in  National  elections,  an  income  tax,  and  the 
Government  guaranty  of  deposits  in  National  banks.  Both 
parties  favored  emergency  currency,  but  differed  slightly 
as  to  the  method  of  its  issuance. 

*  See  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  109,  110. 
t  Both  candidates  for  the  Presidency  were  emphatic  in  advocating 
this  policy. 


The  Opening  of  a  New  Era  525 

In  the  fall  of  1907  a  financial  stringency  had  occurred  in  New    Emergency 
York  City,  and  all  the  business  centers  of  the  country  were  soon    currency, 
affected.     A  decided  check  to  business  followed.     This  "panic" 
was  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  supply  of  money  could  not  be 
expanded  quickly  in  response  to  the  demands  of  trade.     Con 
gress  passed  a  law  (1908)  providing  for  the  issuance,  by  National 
banks,  of  emergency  currency;   this  was  subject  to  a  tax  which 
would  cause  its  withdrawal  when  the  supply  of  money  was  ade 
quate. 

The  election  of  1908  was  a  Republican  victory,  Taft  securing 
321  Electoral  votes,  while  Bryan  had  162. 


SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  Andrews,  The  United  States  in  Our  Time,  treats  the  fol 
lowing  topics:    The  Pan-American  and  St.  Louis  Expositions, 
885-895;    McKinley's   death   and  character,  897-904,  907-910; 
The  Boxer  Rebellion,  905-907;    The  formation   of   the  United 
States   Steel    Corporation,    918-921;    The     anthracite     miners' 
Strike,  924-926. 

2.  An  estimate  of  Mr.  Hay's  diplomacy  is  found  in  The  Out 
look,  73:  271-272. 

3.  Does  the  foreign  policy  of  this  country  include  the  making 
of  treaties  of  alliance  with  other  nations?     Has  this  ever  been 
done? 

4.  What  are  the  present  political  relations  of  the  United  States 
with  Japan  ?  with  England  ? 

5.  Why  was  the  voyage  of  the  American  fleet  an  event  of 
international  importance  ? 

6.  Do  you  approve  of  the  policy  of  enlarging  the  navy  ?     What 
are  some  arguments  for  and  against  that  policy? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  the  unsettled  problems  referred  to  in  this 
chapter.     Classify  them  as  National,  State,  or  local.     Whose 
duty  is  it  to  find  solutions  for  these  problems  ?     Point  to  facts  in 
our  history  that  will  aid  in  solving  any  of  them. 

8.  The  industrial  advance  of  the  South,  World's  Work,  9: 
5488-5498.     Also,  several  articles  in  volume  xiv  (June,  1907). 
Review  of  Reviews,  33:  177-190. 

9.  The  Hague  tribunal,  World's  Work,  9:  5928-5932. 

10.  What  is  the  positive  side  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  ?     Inde 
pendent,  55:  9-11. 


526  American  History 

11.  The  most  prosperous  period  of  our  history.     Review  of 
Reviews,  34:  677-686. 

12.  Methods  of  regulating  immigration.     Review  of  Reviews, 
33:  336-339. 

13.  Conditions  of  child  labor.     Independent,  55:  375-379. 
Outlook,  73:  637-641;  921-927. 

14.  The  number  and  value  of  Carnegie  libraries.     World's 
Work,  9:  6092-6097. 

15.  The  prohibition  wave  in  the  South.     Review  of  Reviews, 
36:  328-334. 

16.  Negotiations  with  Colombia  and  the  Panama  Republic, 
Latane,  America  as  a  World  Power,  208-221. 

17.  The   Panama   Canal.     Independent,    55:    764-770.     Re 
view  of  Reviews,  35:  66-73. 

18.  Additional  references  upon  the  above  and  other  important 
current  topics  may  be  found  in  great  abundance  in  weekly  and 
monthly  periodicals. 

19.  What  do  you  believe  to  be  the  essential  difference  between 
the  Republican  and  Democratic  parties  at  the  present  time? 
What  other  political  parties  had  candidates  in  the  last  Presidential 
election?     What  did  each  stand  for,  and  how  many  votes  were 
cast  for  each  ?     Platforms  and  election  statistics  may  be  found  in 
newspaper  almanacs. 

20.  Further  readings  in  James    and    Mann.      Readings   in 
American  History,  chap.  31. 


APPENDIX  I 

THE    CORRELATION    OF    AMERICAN    HISTORY    AND 
GOVERNMENT 

In  many  schools  it  seems  desirable  to  teach  American  History 
and  Civics  in  close  correlation.  As  a  guide  in  carrying  out  this 
plan,  the  authors  have  prepared  the  following  outline  of  topics, 
with  references  to  the  pages  where  they  are  treated  in  the  text 
"Government  in  State  and  Nation"  by  James  and  Sanford. 
There  is  included,  also,  a  list  of  topics  in  Civics  with  which 
there  is  little  opportunity  for  correlation  in  the  study  of  Ameri 
can  History. 

AN  OUTLINE  SHOWING  THE  CORRELATION  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 
WITH  Civics. 

1.  COLONIAL  HISTORY 

History  Topics  Civics  Topics 

"  Government 
in  State  and 
(A)  LOCAL  GOVERNMENTS  Nation." 

PAGE 

Town  type  in  New  England  Town  organization  of  to-day  5 

Aristocratic  County  type  in  County  Organization  in 

the  South  Southern  States  5 

Combined  town  and  demo-  Towns  and  counties  in  all 

cratic  county  type  in  the  Western  States                        5-6 

Middle  Colonies 

(B)  COLONIAL  GOVERNMENTS 

Colonial    House    of    Repre-      State  House  of  Representa- 

sentatives  tives  or  Assembly  12 

Colonial  Governor's  Council      State  Senate  12 

Colonial  Governor  and  Courts  State  Governor  and  courts   19-20 
Colonial  Charter  State  Constitution  10 

527 


£28  Appendix  I 

(c)  BRITISH  EMPIRE 

PAGE 

Control    of    foreign    affairs,     Control  of  same  affairs  by 

peace  and  war,    Indians,         Congress  See  Index 

ungranted  land,  and  com 
merce,  by  Parliament 

Privy  Council  United     States     Supreme 

Court  303 

2.  REVOLUTIONARY   AND   CRITICAL   PERIODS 

The  formation  of  State  gov-     The    existing    States    and 

ernments;     adoption     of         State  constitutions  9-10 

State  constitutions 

The  Centra.  Government 


The  impotence  of  Congress       Our  strong  central  powers 
Prominence  of  State  feeling     The  National  spirit 
Attitude  of  foreign  nations      Position     of     the     United 

States  to-day 


American  History  and  Government  529 


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Surrender  of  powers  by  States 
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The  first  ten  Amendments  .  .  . 

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Appendix  1 


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TVip  first,  rpvpmip  hills 

Establishment  of  mint  and  coinage  
Census  of  1790  
Provisions  for  United  States  and  State  debts  . 

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Naturalization  act  
Sedition  law  
Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resoh 
the  nature  of  the  governn 

Organization  of  the  District  oJ 
Elftntion  of  1801 

American  History  and  Government  531 


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Internal  improvement  laws  and  vetoes  
Missouri  ComDromise.  .  , 

Election  of  1824  by  House  of  Representatives  
Nullification  by  South  Carolina.  . 

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Cumberland  Road  appropriation.  .  . 
Burr's  trial.  . 

Prohibition  of  slave  trade.  .  . 

Embargo  act  
Clay  as  Speaker  
Action  of  New  England  States  as  rej 
New  England  opposition  to  'War  of 
and  Hartford  Convention  

Treaty  of  Ghent  (another  method  of 
Supreme  Court  decisions  as  to  jur 
Nation—  influence  of  Marshall  .  .  . 
Protective  tariff.  1816.  . 

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Appendix  I 


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Supreme  Court  decisi 

Civil  Service  act.  .  .  . 
Interstate  Commerce 
Income  tax  decision. 
Reciprocity  
Annexation  of  Hawai 

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Appendix  I 


EXTRA  CONSTITUTIONAL  TOPICS  TREATED  IN  AMERICAN  HISTORY 

The  following  topics  show  the  actual  workings  and  policy  of 
the  National  government,  although  no  part  of  the  Constitution 
is  directly  involved  in  any  one  of  them: 

"  Government 
Civics  Topics  in  State  and 

Nation." 

Methods  of  selecting  presi-     PAGE 
dential  electors.  Methods 
of  nominating  candidates 
for  President  and   Vice- 
President  249-255 
Senatorial  courtesy  275 


History  Topics 

Comparison    of    early    and 
later  Presidential  elections 


Methods  of  collecting  Inter 
nal  Revenue  185-186 
Presidential  succession       265-266 
Monroe  Doctrine 


International  Arbitration  355-356 
The  Hague  Tribunal  356 


Tenure  of  office  act.  Quarrel 

between      Garfield      and 

Conkling 
Whiskey  Ring 

Presidency  of  Arthur 

Monroe's  message.  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty.  French  in 
Mexico.  Pan-American 
Congress.  Cuban  War. 
Panama  Canal  Policy 

Treaty  of  Washington 

International  Peace  Confer 
ences 

SUBJECTS  NOT  TREATED  IN  THE  CORRELATION  OF  AMERICAN 
HISTORY  AND  Civics 

1.  National  Government 

While,  as  the  preceding  outline  shows,  the  study  of  American 
History  brings  before  the  pupil  the  more  important  parts  of  the 
Constitution,  and  also  some  of  the  extra-constitutional  workings 
of  the  National  government,  yet  there  are  many  features  of  our 
government  which  do  not  arise  naturally  in  the  discussion  of  any 
event  of  American  history.  A  list  of  such  topics  follows: 

"  Government 

(A)  CONGRESS  in  State  and 

Nation." 

PAGE 

140,  154-155 
.   145-146 
.   160-161 
.   153-154 
163,  170 
167-169 
.   178-180 
.   151-152 
184 


Times  of  elections  and  sessions  .      .      . 

Present  apportionment  and  personnel  of  Congress 

Contested  seats 

Gerrymandering    .      .      .      .c     .     ..-    .      . 
Method  of  voting  in  Congress     .      ,      .      .      .      t 

The  Committee  system , 

Comparison  with  English  Cabinet  system 
Popular  election  of  United  States  Senators      .'••    , 
Reduction  of  the  tariff     .      .      .      .... 


American  History  and  Government  535 


(B)  EXECUTIVE 

PAGE 

Methods  employed  in  collecting  taxes 183,  186 

The  inheritance  tax         189 

Statistics  of  revenues,  appropriations,  and  public  debt  192-193 

Naturalization  frauds 222-224 

Postal  system  and  deficit      ........  225-229 

Status  of  army,  navy,  and  militia 233-238 

Consular  reform 286-287 

Military  and  naval  schools 292,  293 

Pension  policy  and  statistics 295 

Weather  bureau    .  298 


(c)  JUDICIARY 


Present  organization  of  courts 
Process  of  trial 


303-305 
309-312 


2.  State  and  Local  Governments 


General  versus  special  and  private  legislation  ...  12 

Restrictions  upon  State  legislatures 12-13 

Lobbying  and  corruption  of  legislators       ....  13 

The  pass  system 13 

Referendum  and  initiative 15 

Proportional  representation 13-14 

Important  and  recent  legislation  upon  public  health, 
insurance,  general  labor  conditions,  labor  of  women 

and  children,  liquor  traffic,  etc Chaps.  10, 11 

City  Government — general  organization,  administra 
tive  departments;    police  corruption;    home  rule; 
party  politics  in  city  affairs;   municipal  ownership; 
reform  movements          ....          ....        Chap.  4 

Election  processes  and  problems — educational  qualifi 
cations;    boss  and  machine  rule;    primary  reform; 
Australian  ballot;    voting  machine    .      .      .      .      .        Chap.  5 

Taxation  methods  and  problems — corporation  taxes; 
mortgage  tax;   income  and  inheritance  tax;   faults 

of  property  tax Chap.  6 

Penal  and  charitable  legislation  and  institutions  .  Chap.  8 
Educational  legislation  and  school  systems  .  .  .  Chap.  9 
Judicial  organization — processes  of  trial;  workings 

of  jury  system Chap.  7 


APPENDIX   II 


CONSTITUTION 

OF    THE 

UNITED  STATES   OF  AMEEICA. 

WE  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  pro 
vide  for  the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and 
secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  establish  this  CONSTITUTION  for  the  United  States  of 
America 

ARTICLE  I. 

SECTION  I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested 
in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate 
and  a  House  of  Representatives. 

SECT.  II.  1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed 
of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several 
States,  and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications 
requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State 
Legislature. 

2.  No  person   shall   be  a  Representative   who   shall   not   have 
attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be 
an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among 
the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  accord 
ing  to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  add 
ing  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to 
service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three 
fifths  of  all  other  persons.     The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made 
within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the 

536 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America    537 

United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in 
such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Repre 
sentatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  least  one  representative ;  and  until  such  enu 
meration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  enti 
tled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Provi 
dence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey 
four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia 
ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  Stater 
the  Executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill 
such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

SECT.  III.  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  com 
posed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature 
thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of 
the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into 
three  classes.     The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be 
vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  ex 
piration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every 
second  year ;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation  or  otherwise, 
during  the  recess  of  the  legislature   of  any  State,  the  Executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting 
of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that 
State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of 
the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The    Senate  shall    choose    their   other   officers,    and    also   a 
President  pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or 
when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate    shall   have   the  sole  power  to  try  all   impeach 
ments.     When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or 
affirmation.     When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 
Chief  Justice  shall  preside  :  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  with 
out  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present. 


538  Appendix  II 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  office  of  honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States :  but 
the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  in 
dictment,  trial,  judgment  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

SECT.  IV.  1.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elec 
tions  for  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each 
State  by  the  legislature  thereof ;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time 
by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of 
•choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

SECT.  V.  1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections, 
returns  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of 
each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  num 
ber  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel 
the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such 
penalties,  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  pun 
ish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and  with  the  concurrence 
of  two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members 
of  either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of 
those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECT.  VI.  1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid 
out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  ail  cases 
except  treason,  felony  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from 
arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective 
houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same ;  and  for  any 
speech  or  debate  in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in 
any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emolu- 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     539 

ments  whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during  such  time ;  and 
no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a 
member  of  either  house  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

SECT.  VII.  1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representa 
tives  and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States ;    if  he  approve  he  shall  sign 
it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it  with  his  objections  to  that  house 
in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at 
large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.     If  after  such 
reconsideration  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill, 
it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house, 
by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and,  if  approved  by  two 
thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.     But  in  all  such  cases 
the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays, 
and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall 
be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.     If  any  bill 
shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall 
be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not 
be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except 
on  a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall 
be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  re- 
passed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

SECT.  VIII.  The  Congress  shall  have  power 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay 
the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare 
of  the  United  States ;    but  all  duties,  imposts  and  excises  shall  be 
uniform  throughout  the  United  States ; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States ; 


540  Appendix  II 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign 
coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities 
and  current  coin  of  the  United  States ; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  secur 
ing  for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right 
to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries ; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water  ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money 
to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years  ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy ; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws 
of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining  the  mili 
tia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respective 
ly  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the 
militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress ; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  district  (npt  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat 
of  government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority 
over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the 
State,  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  maga 
zines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful  buildings; — and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  department  or  office  thereof. 

SECT.  IX.  1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as 
any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not 
be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  1808;  but  a  tax  or 
duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  $10  for 
each  person. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     541 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  sus 
pended,  unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public 
safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  pro 
portion  to  the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be 
taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any 
State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce 
or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another :  nor 
shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter, 
clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from   the  treasury,  but    in  con 
sequence  of  appropriations  made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement 
and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money 
shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States  :  and 
no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolu 
ment,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince, 
or  foreign  state. 

SECT.  X.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or 
confederation ;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ; 
emit  bills  of  credit ;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  ten* 
der  in  payment  of  debts ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto 
law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title 
of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  ab 
solutely  necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws :  and  the  net 
produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or 
exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States ; 
and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of 
the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty 
of  tonnage,  keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into 
any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign 
power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  im 
minent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 


542  Appendix  11 


ARTICLE   II. 

SECTION  I.  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the 
term  of  four  years,  and  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen 
for  the  same  term,  be  elected  as  follows  : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  num 
ber  of  Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  en 
titled  in  the  Congress ;  but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  per 
son  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States, 
shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

[The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  in 
habitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make 
a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  Presi 
dent  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  hav 
ing  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ; 
and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have 
an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President;  and  if  no 
person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the 
said  house  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  rep 
resentation  from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the 
Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have 
equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice- 
President.  ] 

3.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors, 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes ;  which  day  shall 
be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

4.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     543 

United  States,  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President  ;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the 
United  States. 

5.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties 
of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and 
the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death, 
resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President, 
declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer 
shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  Presi 
dent  shall  be  elected. 

6.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services, 
a  compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished 
during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall 
not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

7.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take 
the  following  oath  or  affirmation  : — "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  af 
firm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect 
and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

SECT.  II.  1.  The  President  shall  be  commander  in  chief  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United 
States  ;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal 
officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  re 
lating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have 
power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United 
States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators 
present  concur ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other 
officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law :  but 
the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of 
law,  or  in  the  heads  of  depaitments. 


544  Appendix  II 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that 
may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commis 
sions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

SECT.  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  in 
formation  of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  con 
sideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient; 
he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either 
of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them,  with  respect 
to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as 
he  shall  think  proper ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  pub 
lic  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  exe.- 
cuted,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

SECT.  IV.  The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  officers 
of  the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment 
for,  and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III. 

SECTION  I.  1.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  Con 
gress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges, 
both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices 
during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their 
services,  a  compensation,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their 
continuance  in  office. 

SECT.  II.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  treaties  made  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  au 
thority  ;  —  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  minis 
ters  and  consuls ;  —  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  jurisdiction ;  —  to 
controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ;  —  to 
controversies  between  two  or  more  States ;  —  between  a  State  and 
citizens  of  another  State ;  —  between  citizens  of  different  States ; 
—  between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants 
of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof, 
and  foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before 
mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction, 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     545 

both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such  reg 
ulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall 
be  by  jury ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said 
crimes  shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  with 
in  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Con 
gress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

SECT.  III.  1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason 
unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or 
on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood, 
or  forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 


AETICLE   IV. 

SECTION  I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to 
the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other 
State.  And  the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  man 
ner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved, 
and  the  effect  thereof. 

SECT.  II.  1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority   of  the   State  from 
which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having 
jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the 
laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any 
law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor, 
but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  ser 
vice  or  labor  may  be  due. 

SECT.  III.  1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  Union  ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by 
the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the 
consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of 
the  Congress. 


546  Appendix  II 

2,  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  o>f  and  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other 
property  belonging  to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this  Con 
stitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

SECT.  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in 
this  Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect 
each  of  them  against  invasion ;  and  on  application  of  the  legislature, 
or  of  the  executive  (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened) 
against  domestic  violence. 


ARTICLE   V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem 
it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or, 
on  the  application  of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several 
States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which, 
in  either  case  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of 
this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths 
of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof, 
as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by 
the  Congress;  provided  that  no  amendments  which  may  be  made 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any 
manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of 
the  first  article;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be 
deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 


ARTICLE   VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof ;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which 
shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the   United  States,  shall  be 
the  supreme  law  of  the  land ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall 
be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  Taws  of    any 
State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The   Senators    and    Representatives   before   mentioned,  and 
the  members  of  the  several   State  legislatures,  and  all  executive 
and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     547 

States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation,  to  support  this  Con 
stitution  ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualifi 
cation  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 


ARTICLE  VII. 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States,  shall  be  suf 
ficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States 
so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  pres 
ent,  the  seventeenth  day  of  September  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven  and  of  the  Inde 
pendence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth.  In  wit 
ness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 


[Signed  by] 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Oilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Nathaniel  Gorham, 
Rufus  King. 

CONNECTICUT. 


G°  WASHINGTON, 
Presidt  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 
B  Franklin, 
Thomas  Mifflin, 
Robt.  Morris, 
Geo.  Clymer, 
Tho.  Fitz  Simons, 
Jared  Ingersoll, 


Wm.  Saml.  Johnson,  James  Wilson, 


Roger  Sherman. 

NEW  YORK. 
Alexander  Hamilton. 

NEW  JERSEY. 
Wil :  Livingston, 
David  Brearley, 
Wm :  Paterson, 
Jona :  Dayton. 


Gouv  Morris. 

DELAWARE. 
Geo :  Read, 
Gunning  Bedford 

Jim, 

John  Dickinson, 
Richard  Bassett, 
Jaco  :  Broom. 

MARYLAND. 
James  McHenry, 
Dan  of  St.  Thos. 

Jenifer, 
Danl  Carroll. 

Attest :  William  Jackson,  Secretary 


VIRGINIA. 
John  Blair, 
James  Madison,  Jr. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 
Wm.  Blount, 
Richd.  Dobbs  Spaight, 
Hu  Williamson. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 
J".  Rutledge, 
Charles  Cotesworth 

Pinckney, 
Charles  Pinckney, 
Pierce  Butler. 

GEORGIA. 
William  Fen, 
Abr  Baldwin. 


548  Appendix  II 

ARTICLES  IN  ADDITION  TO  AND  AMENDMENT  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  PROPOSED  BY  CONGRESS, 
AND  RATIFIED  BY  THE  LEGISLATURES  OF  THE  SEVERAL  STATES, 
PURSUANT  TO  THE  FIFTH  ARTICLE  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  CONSTI 
TUTION. 

ARTICLE  I. — Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establish 
ment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof  ;  or 
abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of 
the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government 
for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. — A  well-regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  se 
curity  of  a  free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear 
arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III. — No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in 
any  house  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war, 
but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. — The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  per 
sons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and 
seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon 
probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly 
describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to 
be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V.— No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or 
otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of 
a  grand  jury  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or 
in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  dan 
ger  :  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be 
twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in 
any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived 
of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law  ;  nor 
shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compen 
sation. 

ARTICLE  VI. — In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  en 
joy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of 
the  State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed, 
which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to 
be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  con 
fronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him  ;  to  have  compulsory  process 
for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of 
counsel  for  his  defence. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     549 

ARTICLE  VII. — In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  contro 
versy  shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be 
preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-exam 
ined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules 
of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. — Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  exces 
sive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX. — The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain 
rights,  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained 
by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. — The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by 
the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to 
the  States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI. — The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not 
be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or 
prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another 
State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

ARTICLE  XII. — 1.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of 
whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for 
as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice- 
President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for 
as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of 
the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  cer 
tify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate ;  —  the  President 
of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted;  —  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have 
such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers 
not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the 
President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken 
by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  de- 


550  Appendix  II 

Tolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President.  —  The 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-President,  shall 
be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist 
of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person 
constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible 
to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII. — Section  1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  ser 
vitude,  except  as  a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall 
have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or 
any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation.  • 

ARTICLE  XIV. — Section  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in 
the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citi 
zens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No 
State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privi 
leges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States ;  nor  shall  any 
State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law ;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the 
equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole 
number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But 
when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  Electors  for 
President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives 
in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the 
members  of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  in 
habitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation 
in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall 
be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citi 
zens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in 
Congress,  or  Elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     551 

office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State, 
who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or 
as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legis 
lature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insur 
rection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the 
enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each 
house,  remove  such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States, 
authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pen 
sions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  re 
bellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor 
any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid 
of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim 
for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  ob 
ligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  by  appropri 
ate  legislation  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV.— Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States 
or  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 


INDEX 


ABOLITIONISM,  314-317 

Abolitionists,  392 

Acadia,  311 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  402 

Adams,  John,  150,  157,  179;  elected 
President,  232 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  Minister  to 
Russia,  255;  elected  President, 
290,  291 

Adams,  Samuel,  146,  149,  150,  151; 
attitude  toward  Constitution, 
206 

Admunsen,  Captain,  32  (note) 

Agricultural  colleges,  389 

Aguinaldo,  502 

Alabama,  under  carpet-bag  gov 
ernment,  431 

Alabama,  cruiser,  402 

Alabama  claims,  438-439 

Alaska,  436,  449 

Albany  Congress,  122 

Albemarle,  settlement,  75 

Alexander  VI,  Pope,  11 

Alexandria,  convention,  197 

Algonquin  Indians,  70-71,  98 

Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  235,  236 

Allen,  Ethan,  155 

Alliacus,  3 

Altgeld,  Governor  John,  493 

Amendments,  first  ten,  217; 
eleventh,  217,  218;  twelfth,  237; 
thirteenth,  410-411;  fourteenth, 
421,  423-425;  fifteenth,  427 

America,  naming  of,  11-14 

American  Federation  of  Labor, 
453,  519 

American  Party,  352 

Amnesty,  433 

Amnesty  oath,  417;  proclamation, 
418,  419 

Anarchists,  455;  of  Chicago,  459 

Anderson,  Major  Robert,  372 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  74,  89:  im 
prisoned,  90;  overthrown,  90  103 

Annapolis  convention,  197 

Anne,  Queen,  War,  113,  114 

Anthracite  coal  strike,  519,  525 


Antietam,  battle,  390 

Anti-Federalists,  222 

Anti-Masonic  Party,  308,  309 

Appomattox  Court  House,  410 

Appropriations,  Congressional,  216 

Arabs,  7 

Arbitration,  at  Geneva,  439;  in 
Venezuelan  question,  487 ;  treaty 
with  England,  487-488,  496;  in 
ternational,  513 

Area  of  United  States,  1790,  207 

Aristotle,  3 

Arkansas,  reconstruction  of,  418 

Armada,  34-35,  36 

Arnold,  Benedict,  157,  173,  177 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  460,  463 

Ashley,  Lord,  75 

Assembly  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
colony,  58;  of  Connecticut,  62; 
New  Hampshire,  62-63;  Penn-1 
sylvania,  81;  Virginia,  45,  48, 
49;  Plymouth,  53;  South  Caro 
lina,  78;  Maryland,  48;  in  Philip 
pines,  503 

Astrolabe,  4 

Atlanta,  capture  of,  405,  406-407 

Audiencias,  24 

Australian  ballot  system,  522 

Ayllon,  Lucas  Vasquez  de,  19,  26 

Aztecs,  20 

BACON,  NATHANIEL,  87 

Bacon's  Rebellion,  87,  103 

Bacon,  Roger,  3 

Bahamas,  10,  20,  76 

Balance  of  trade,  131 

Balboa,  17,  26 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  300 

Baltimore,  Lord,  46,  47,  65,  90 

Bancroft,  George,  358 

Bank,  United  States,  established, 

220,  221;  second,  272 
Banks,  General  N.  P.,  395 
Baptists,  59  (note),  93 
Barbadoes,  75-76 
Barbary  Powers,  war  with,  249,  250 
Barnburners,  334 


553 


554 


Index 


Beauregard,  General  P.  Y.  T.,  377, 

383 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  359 
Belknap,  William  W.,  446 
Bell,  John,  365 
Berkeley,  John,  74 
Berkeley,  Sir  William,  65,  86-87 
Berlin,  Treaty  of,  504 
Bermuda,  38 
Bessemer  process,  451 
"Bimini,"  18 

Black  coder,  420-421,  423,  '35 
Black   Warrior  incident,  351 
Blaine,  James   G.,    446,   460,   461, 

464-465,  470-471,  475 
Blair,  Francis,  380,  430 
Bland,  Richard  P.,  483 
Bland-Allison  Act,  1878,  459,  479- 

480 
Blockade,  Civil  War,  375-376,  396, 

412 
Bonds,    United    States,    386-387, 

388,  400 

Boone,  Daniel,   171 
Booth,  John  Wilkes,  411 
Boston,  settled,  56;  massacre,  150; 

evacuated,  156 
Bounty,  Civil  War,  309 
Bout  well,  George  S.,  428 
Boxer  Rebellion,  512,  525 
Bradford,  William,  50,  52 
Bragg,  General  Braxton,  384,  398- 

399 

Brazil,  12 

Breckenridge,  John  C.,  Vice-Presi 
dent,  353;  candidate  for  Presi 
dent,  364 
Bright,  John,  401 
Btistow,  B.  H.,  446 
Brock,  General,  262,  263 
Brown,  John,  363,  364 
Bryan,  William  J.,  482-483,  485, 

495;  campaign  of  1908,  524 
Buchanan,  James,  President,  353, 

368,  372 

Buckner,  Simon  B.,  483 
Buell,  General  Don  Carlos,  382,  383 
Bull     Run,     battle    of,     376-377; 

second  battle  of,  389,  396 
Bunker  Hill,  155,  156 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  471 
Burgesses,  House  of,  45 
Burgoyne,  General  John,  165-167 
Burnside,  General  A.  E.,  392 
Burr,  Aaron,  Vice-President,  237; 

conspiracy.  250,  251 
Butler,  General  Benjamin  F.,  390, 

403,  428 


CABOT,  JOHN,  27,  31,  36 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  27,  36 

Cabot  voyages,  71 

Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez  de,  12 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  and  war  of  1812, 

259,    260;'   Vice-President,    290; 

and  tariff  of  1828,  293,  294;  and 

Omnibus  Bill,  337;  370 
California,  admitted,  336 
Calvert,  Cecil,  46 
Calvert,  George,  46,  49 
Cameron,  Simon,  374 
Capital  of  United  States,  location, 

219,  220 

Carnegie,    Andrew,    518,    523;    li 
braries,  526 
Carolina,    North,    settlement,    75; 

life  in,  76,  77 

Carolina,  South,  settlement,  75,  76 
Carpet-bag  governments,  430-433, 

435,  448 

Carpet-baggers,  426 
Carteret,  Sir  George,  74,  75 
Cartier,  Jacques,  29,  36 
Carver,  William,  52 
Cass,  Lewis,  333,  334 
Cathay,  see  China 
Catholics  in  Maryland,  90 
Cavaliers  in  Virginia,  65 
Centennial  Exposition,  488 
Champlain,  Lake,  105 
Champlain,    Samuel   de,    104-107, 

108 

Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  392 
Charles  I,  54,  55,  63,  66 
Charles  II,  63,  73,  75,  79,  82,  88, 

103 

Charles  V,  Emperor,  28,  29,  30 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  75,  77 
Chase,  Salmon  P.,  337,  347,  374, 

405 
Chattanooga,  383;  campaign,  398- 

399;  408,  413 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal,  300 
Chesapeake,  attack  by  Leopard,  252 
Chesapeake  vs.  Shannon,  264 
Chicago,  anarchist  riot,  455;  strike 

of  1894,  492-493,  496 
Chickamauga,  battle  of,  413 
Child  labor,  521,  526 
China,  6;  contest  for,  511 
Chinese,  456;  immigration,  459 
Chisholm  vs.  Georgia,  218 
Christiana,  fort,  71 
Church  of  England,  55,  58,  88 
Cibola,  seven  cities  of,  21,  26 
Cincinnati,  founded,  190 
Cipango  (Japan),  10 


Index 


555 


Givil  Rights  bill,  423 

Civil  Service  reform,  445-446,  463- 

464,  475,  494-495 
Civil  War,  in  England,  63,  88 
Civil  War,  in  United  States,  Chap 
ters   XXIII,    XXIV;   industrial 
effects,  439-440,  449 
Claims,  Western,  184,  185;  cessions, 

185,  186 

Clarendon,  Earl  of,  75 
Clark,  George  Rogers,  173 
Clay,  Henry,  Speaker,  259;  candi 
date    for    President,    323;    and 
Omnibus  bill,  337 
Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  335,  336, 

514,  515 

Cleveland,   Grover,   464-466,   468, 
479;    President,    485-487,    493; 
policy  towards  Cuba,  498 
Clinton,  De  Witt,  277 
Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  162,  178 
Cobden,  Richard,  401 
Coeducation,  359 
Colbert,  107 

Cold  Harbor,  battle  of,  401 
Colfax,  Schuyler,  430 
Colleton,  Sir  John,  75 
Colombia,  United  States   of,  516, 

526 

Colonial  governments,  133,  134 
Colonies,  life  in  (1690),  91-103 
Colorado,  Territory,  373 
Columbia,  South  Carolina.  409 
Columbus,  Bartholomew,  map  of, 

13,  27 

Columbus,  Christopher,  ideas  as  to 
earth,  3;  in  Portugal,  8;  geograph 
ical  ideas,  8-9;  early  life,  9;  in 
Spain,  9-10;  character,  10;  voy 
ages,  10-11;  references,  15-16 
Commerce,  American,  37 
Commerce,  eastern,  5-7,  15,  37 
Committees  of  Correspondence,  151 
Commonwealth,  England,  63,  88 
Communal  system,   in   Plymouth, 

52;  in  Virginia,  43 
Compass,  4 

Compensation  Act,  390 
Compromise  of  1850,  338,  339 
Compromises  of    the  Constitution, 

201-202 
Concentration    of    industry,    452- 

453,  517-518 

Confederate  States  of  America,  372; 
comparison  with  United  States, 
377-379;  reasons  for  defeat,  411- 
412;  bonds  of,  412;  paper  money, 
412;  debts,  424 


Confederation,  Articles  of,  drawn 
up,  168;  adopted,  183;  govern 
ment  under,  183,  184,  185;  at 
tempts  to  amend,  194,  195 

Confiscation  Act,  390 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  446,  461,  462, 
475 

Connecticut,  colony,  60-62,  88,  89; 
references,  67;  Fundamental  Or 
ders  of,  67 

Conscription,  by  United  States, 
399,  412 

Constitution  vs.  Guerriere,  263 

Constitution,  signers  of,  203;  origin 
of,  204;  ratification,  204,  205, 
206 

Constitutional  Convention,  198- 
204 

Constitutional  Union  party,  364, 
365 

Construction  of  the  Constitution, 
221,  222 

Continental  Congress,  First,  154; 
Second,  155 

Continental  system,  251 

Contraband  of  war,  390 

Cooper,  Peter,  46 

Copperheads,  405 

Cordova,  Hernandez  de,  18 

Cornwallis,  Lord  Charles,  164,  177 

Coronado,  Francisco  de,  21-22,  26 

Corporations,  452,  472-473,  478 

Correlation  of  American  History 
and  Government,  Appendix  I 

Cortez,  Hernando,  18-19,  20-21, 
26 

Cotton-gin,  239 

Cotton,  John,  60 

Coureurs  du  Bois,  108 

Credit  Mobilier,  446,  449 

Crevecoeur,  110 

Crisis  of  1819,  272;  of  1873,  444- 
445 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  63,  85 

Crusades,  5,  15 

Cuba,  10,  17,  18;  attempts  to  an 
nex,  350,  351;  government  by 
Spain,  497;  rebellions,  497-499; 
war  in,  500-502;  occupation  by 
United  States,  503;  Republic 
established,  503-504;  govern 
ment  by  Spain,  506 

Currency,  emergency,  525 

Curtis,  Benjamin  R.,  428 

Curtis,  George  William,  359,  445, 
463 

Custer,  General  George  A.,  474 

Cutler,  Manasseh,  188,  189 


556 


Index 


DAKOTA,  Territory,  372 

Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  42,  48 

Dallas,  Alexander,  272 

Dalton,  battle  of,  495 

Dane,  Nathan,  189 

Dartmouth  College  Case,  286 

Davis,  Jefferson,  372-373 

Davis,  John,  32 

Dawes  bill,  474 

Debates,  Elliot's,  198 

Debs,  Eugene,  493 

Debt,  National  (1789),  218,  219 

De  Grasse,  Count,  178 

De  Kalb,  Baron,  168 

Delaware,  colony,  81 

Delaware,  Lord,  41 

Delaware,  Swedes  in,  71 

De  Leon,  Ponce,  86 

Demarcation,  line  of,  12,  19 

Democracy,  Jacksonian  and  Jeffer- 
sonian  compared,  297 

Democratic  party  organized,  2 

Denonville,  Marquis  de,  111 

De  Soto,  Ferdinando,  26 

Dickinson,  John,  146,  149,  157 

Dingley  tariff,  494 

District  of  Columbia,  slavery  in, 
390 

Domain,  National,  beginning  of, 
186 

Donelson,  Fort,  381-382 

Dorr  rebellion,  321 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  340,  345-347, 
348,  361,  364,  365 

Draft,  see  conscription 

Drake,  Francis,  32,  36 

Dred  Scott  decision,  359 

Dutch,  settlement  in  America,  61; 
exploration,  68-69:  trade  with 
East,  68;  wars  with  Spain,  68; 
trading  posts,  69,  70;  coloniza 
tion,  69-74;  wars  with  England, 
73;  settlers,  81-82;  commerce, 
85-86;  relations  with  Indians, 
156;  East  India  Company,  68-70; 
West  India  Company,  69,  71 

EARLY,  GENERAL  JUBAL,  404 

Earth,  geographical  ideas  concern 
ing,  2-3 

East  India  Company,  38 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  492 

Education,  in  New  England  colo 
nies,  94;  colonial,  103;  college  in 
eighteenth  century,  133;  in  1760, 
210-212;  progress,  489;  recent 
movements,  522-523 

Electoral  Commission,  448 


Electrical  inventions,  492,  496 

Electricity,  451 

Eliot,  John,  100 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  31, 
34,  53 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  390- 
391,  401,  416 

Embargo,  1807,  253 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  359 

Emigrant  aid  companies,  348 

England,  rivalry  with  Spain,  32- 
35;  church  of,  54;  wars  with 
Dutch,  73;  recognition  of  bellig 
erency,  376;  attitude  during 
Civil  War,  401,  413;  and  Venezu 
ela,  486-487,  495-496;  relations 
with  United  States,  513 

English,  early  voyages,  27-28;  30- 
31,  32;  colonization,  motives  for, 
33,  34,  39-40,  48,  91 

English,  William  H.,  460 

Era  of  Good  Feeling,  285,  286 

Ericson,  Lief,  2 

Ericsson.  John,  384-385 

Erie  Canal,  277,  278 

Evarts,  William  M.,  428 

Everett,  Edward,  347 

Executive  departments  organized, 
216 

FALLEN  TIMBERS,  BATTLE  OF,  230 

Farmers'  Alliance,  477 

Farmers  Letters,  149 

Farragut,  Admiral  David  G.,  384, 
406 

Federalist,  The,  206 

Federalist  party,  223 

Federalists,  attitude  toward  Con 
stitution,  205 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  9-10,  23 

Fiction,  historical,  Mexico,  26; 
Virginia,  49;  New  England  colo 
nies,  66,  67;  Washington's  ad 
ministration,  225;  Jefferson's  ad 
ministration,  258;  War  of  1812, 
270;  early  West,  254;  Jacksonian 
period,  326;  period  of  expansion, 
345;  ante-bellum  times,  367; 
Civil  War,  397;  reconstruction 
period,  436;  Indian  problems,  476 

Fillmore,  Millard,  Vice-President, 
334;  President,  339 

Finances  of  the  Confederation,  193, 
194 

Finns,  82 

Fish,  Hamilton,  438 

Fisheries,  Atlantic,  28,  31,  111; 
dispute  over,  487 


Index 


557 


Five  Nations,  see  Iroquois 

Florida,  18,  21;  purchase  of,  286, 
287 

Foote,  Commodore  Andrew  H.,  382 

Force  laws,  432 

Foreign  affairs,  under  Confedera 
tion,  191,  192 

Foreign  relations,  1793-1801.  226- 
228 

France,  treaty  of  alliance  with 
United  States  (1778),  168,  169; 
troubles  with,  233,  234 

Francis  I,  King  of  France,  28,  29 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  147;  treaty 
with  France,  169,  179;  in  Con 
stitutional  Convention,  198 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  392 

Free  coinage  of  silver,  458,  482- 
485;  arguments  for  and  against, 
484,  495 

Free  Soil  party,  formed,  334 

Freedmen,  415-416,  420-421,  426 

Freedmen's  Bureau,  415,  416,  421, 
422,  431-432,  435 

Fremont,  John  C.,  352,  390,  405 

French,  early  voyages  to  America, 
28-30;  in  America,  Chapter  VIII ; 
colonization,  first  period,  104; 
second  period,  107;  third  period, 
107-108;  influence  of  wars,  111- 
112;  compared  with  English, 
112;  posts  in  Middle  West,  114, 
115,  116;  in  Ohio  valley,  121 

French  and  Indian  war,  122-125 

French  Revolution,  226 

Frobisher,  Martin,  32 

Frontenac,  Count,  108,  110 

Fugitive  Slave  law,  339 

Fulton,  Robert,  249 

Fundamental  Constitutions,  Caro- 
linas,  77,  78,  83 

Fundamental  Orders,  Connecticut, 
61-62 

Fur  trade,  97-98;  French,  108,  111 

GADSDEN,  CHRISTOPHER,  146 

Gadsden  Purchase,  350 

Gallatin,     Albert,     Secretary     of 

Treasury,  244 
Gama,  Vasco  da,  10 
Gardoqui,  192 

Garfield,  James  A.,  460-463,  475 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  315,  316 
Genet,  226,  227 
Geneva  Arbitration,  439,  449 
Geographical  ideas  of  earth,  17 
George  III,  of  England,  policy,  150, 

151 


George,  King,  war,  115 
Georgia,  colony,  138,  139 
Germans,  in  colonies,  76,  82,  84, 

129,  139 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  393-394,  397 
Ghent,  Treaty  of,  267 
Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  33,  36 
Girls'  education,  303 
Gold,  discovery  of,  in  California, 

335 

Gold  Democrats,  483 
Gomez,  Estevan,  19,  26 
Gompers,  Samuel,  519 
Goodyear,  Charles,  356 
Gorges,  Sir  Fernando,  63 
Granger  movement,  455-456,  459, 

466 
Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  in  Mexican  War, 

332;  General  in  Civil  War,  382, 

394,  396,  398-399,  402,  408,  414, 

428;  nominated  for  Presidency, 

430;  President,  434,  445-446,  460 
Great  Awakening,  the,  133 
Great   Britain  and  neutral  trade, 

251;  relations  with  United  States 

(1783-1787),  191,   192 
Greeley,    Horace,    358;    433-434; 

435-436 

Greenback  party,  456-457,  459 
Greene,    General    Nathaniel,    176, 

177 

Greenville,  Treaty  of,  230 
Grenville,  George,  144 
Grenville,  Sir  Richard,  34 
Griffon,  The,  110 
Groseilliers,  Sieur  de,  108 
Guadaloupe    Hidalgo,    Treaty    of, 

322 

Guiana,  38 
Guinea  Company,  38 
Guiteau,  Charles,  462 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  71 

Habeas  Corpus,  writ  of,  391 
Hague   Conference,   512-513;   Tri 
bunal,  526 

Hail  Columbia,  composed,  234 
Halleck,  General  Henry  W.,  382 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  recommends 
Philadelphia    Convention,     197; 
member  of  Constitutional  Con 
vention,   198;  views  on  govern 
ment,  200;  Secretary  of  Treasury, 
217-222;  death  of,  250 
Hamlin,  Hannibal,  365 
Hancock,  General  Winfield  S.,  393, 

460 
Hansa  towns,  31 


558 


Index 


Harriman,  E.  H.,  518 

Harriman,  James,  518 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  468,  479 

Harrison,  General  William  H.,  257; 
President,  318,  319;  in  North 
west  (1812),  262 

Hartford  Convention,  268 

Harvard  College,  64,  94 

Havana,  30  (note) 

Hawaii,  485-486,  495;  annexation, 
504 

Hawkins,  John,  32,  36 

Hay,  John,  Secretary  of  State,  512, 
515,  525 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  447-449 

Hayti,  10,  17,  20 

Head  right,  in  Virginia,  43 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  446 

Hennepin,  Father,  111 

Henrietta  Maria,  Queen  of  Eng 
land,  46 

Henry,  Fort,  381-382 

Henry  IV,  King  of  France,  104 

Henry  VII,  King  of  England,  27 

Henry  VIII,  King  of  England,  31, 
53 

Henry,  Patrick,  attitude  toward 
'Constitution,  205,  206 

Henry,  Prince,  of  Portugal,  7,  15 

Higher  law,  doctrine  of,  338 

Hispaniola,  17 

Hobart,  Garrett  A.,  484 

Hobson,  Richmond  P.,  501 

Hoe,  Richard  M.,  356 

Holland,  33,  50 

Holy  Alliance,  288 

Homestead  Act,  387,  441 

Hood,  General  John  G.,  408 

Hooker,  General  Joseph,  392 

Hooker,  Reverend  Thomas,  61 

Horn,  Cape,  68  (note) 

House  of  Burgesses,  Virginia,  45, 
65,  86 

Houston,  Sam,  322 

Howe,  Elias,  356 

Howe,  General  William,  162,  167 

Hudson,  Henry,  68-69,  83 

Huguenots,  attempted  settlements, 
29-30;  wars  in  France,  29;  colony 
36;  in  English  colonies,  74,  76; 
in  France,  104  (note) 

Hull,  General  William,  261,  262 

Hundred  Associates,  107 

Hunkers,  334 

Hunter,  General  David,  390 

Huron  Indians,  105  (note),  107 

Hutchinson,  Mrs.  Anne,  58,  66, 
67 


IMMIGRATION,  342,  456,  459,  519- 
520,  526 

Impeachment  of  President  John 
son,  428 

Imperial  control,  policy  of,  89,  103 

Imperialism,  508,  510 

Implied  powers  of  the  Constitu 
tion,  220,  221 

Impressment,  right  of,  252 

Income  tax,  387;  in  Wilson  bill, 
494 

Indentured  servants,  43-44;  in 
Maryland,  47,  95,  102 

Independence,  growth  of,  156,  157; 
Declaration  of,  157;  causes  for, 
159,  160 

Independent  Treasury,  established, 
314;  restored,  328 

Independents,  in  England,  54,  63 

India,  5,  6;  route  to,  8 

Indians,  relations  of  Columbus 
with,  16;  slaves,  18;  in  West  In 
dies,  20;  in  Mexico,  20;  northern, 
23;  conversion  by  Spanish,  25; 
of  New  Mexico,  26;  Plymouth 
colony,  52;  relations  with  colo 
nists,  98;  subdivisions,  98,  99; 
political  organization,  61,  101; 
of  Eastern  North  America,  98, 
99;  relations  with  settlers,  100; 
French  and,  105-107;  of  West, 
473-474,  476.  See  also  Algon- 
quins,  Hurons,  Iroquois,  Musk- 
hogean,  Winnebago,  Sioux 

Indigo,  76 

Industrial  methods,  new,  521 

Inflation  bill,  445 

Insurance  companies,  investiga 
tion  of,  521 

Internal  improvements,  277;  dur 
ing  administration  of  J.  Q. 
Adams,  292,  300 

Internal  revenue  laws,  388-389 

Interstate  Commerce  Act,  of  1887, 
466-467,  475;  of  1906,  519 

Inventions,  356,  490-492 

Iron  and  steel  manufacture,  451 

Iroquois  Indians,  70,  82,  98,  105- 
106,  107,  108 

Irrigation,  521 

Isthmian  Canal,  514-515 

JACKSON,  ANDREW,  AT  NEW  OR 
LEANS,  267;  President,  295;  char 
acter  of,  297,  298;  spoils  system, 
305,  306;  Indian  policy,  308;  re- 
elected,  309;  United  States 
Bank,  309-311 


Index 


559 


Jackson,  General  Thomas  J. 
("Stonewall"),  392 

James  I,  King  of  England,  39,  45, 
54 

James  II,  King  of  England,  74,  82, 
89-90 

Jamestown,  Va.,  40,  41,  44,  48 

Japan,  war  with  Russia,  512 

Jay,  John,  179;  treaty  with  Spain, 
192;  Chief  Justice,  217;  treaty 
with  England,  227-230 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  179;  Secretary 
of  State,  217;  Vice- President, 
232;  President,  237;  and  civil 
service,  242;  personality  of,  241; 
reflected,  250 

Jesuits,  107,  108 

Jews  in  Spain,  30;  in  colonies,  74, 
94 

Johnson,  Andrew,  Vice- President, 
405;  President,  418-419;  recon 
struction  policy,  419-422,  423, 
425,  427,  434-435;  impeach 
ment,  428-429,  435 

Johnston,  General  Albert  Sidney, 
382-383 

Johnston,  General  Joseph  E.,  385- 
386,  395,  404,  410 

Joliet,  Louis,  108-110 

Jones,  John  Paul,  175,  176 

Judiciary,  organization  of,  217,  218 

KANSAS,  EMIGRATION  TO,  348; 
CIVIL  WAR  IN,  350 

Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  346,  347 

Kearsarge,  402 

Kentucky,  made  a  county  of  Vir 
ginia,  171;  admitted,  238 

Kern,  John  W.,  524 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  256 

Kieft,  William,  71 

King,  Rufus,  189 

King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  177 

Klondike,  507 

Knights  of  Labor,  453 

Know-Nothing  party,  352 

Knox,  Henry,  Secretary  of  War, 
217 

Ku  Klux  Klan,  432,  435 

LABOR  UNIONS,  302,  453-455,  459 

Ladrone  Islands,  19 

Lafayette,  General,  168 

Land   in   English   colonies,   91-92; 

in  Maryland,  47;  in  Virginia,  43; 

disputes  with  Indians,  100 
Lane,  Ralph,  34 
Las  Casas,  26 


LaSalle,  Sieur  de,  110-111 

Laud,  William,  Archbishop,  55,  61 

Laurens,  Henry,  179 

Lecompton  Constitution,  360,  361 

Lee,  General  Fitzhugh,  502 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  157 

Lee,  General  Robert  E.,  375,  386, 
389-390,  392,  403-404,  410 

Legal  tenders,  see  United  States 
notes 

Leisler,  Jacob,  90 

Lenox  Globe,  13 

Levant  Company,  38 

Lewis  and  Clark,  expedition  of,  248 

Lexington,  battle  of,  154 

Liberal  Republican  Party,  433 

Liberator,  The,  316 

Liberty  Party,  318 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  candidate  for 
senator,  361-362;  elected  Presi 
dent,  365;  inaugural,  370-371, 
373-374,  396;  President,  380- 
381 ;  Emancipation  Proclamation, 
390-391;  criticisms  of,  391-392; 
character  and  policy,  405-407, 
408;  second  inaugural,  409;  as 
sassination,  411,  414;  recon 
struction  policy,  416,  418,  434 

Literature,  recent,  489-490 

Local  government,  in  Massachu 
setts  Bay  Colony,  58;  in  New 
England,  94;  in  middle  colonies, 
98  j  in  Southern  colonies,  96 

Locke,  John,  77 

London  Company,  38,  51;  motives 
for  founding,  39-40;  settle  James 
town,  40;  plans,  42;  overthrow, 
45 

Longfellow's  Skeleton  in  Armor,  15 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  399 

Lopez,  filibustering  expedition,  351 

Lords  of  Trade,  87,  89 

Louisiana,  ceded  to  France,  244, 
245;  purchase,  245-247;  ex 
ploration,  248;  reconstruction  in, 
418 

Louis  XIV,  King  of  France,  76 

Lovejoy,  Elijah  P.,  316 

Lowell.  James  Russell,  358,  359 

Loyal  Leagues,  431 

Lundy,  Benjamin,  314,  315 

Lyon,  General  Nathaniel,  380 

McCLELLAN,  GENERAL,  GEORGE  B., 
385-386,  389-390,  392,  406-407 

MacDonough,  Captain  Thomas,  on 
Lake  Champlain,  000 

McCormick,  Cyrus,  302,  356 


560 


Index 


McCulloch  vs.  Maryland,  286 

Machinery,  use  of,  452 

Mackinac,  108 

McKinley  tariff  law,  479 

McKinley,  William,  484-485;  policy 
toward  Cuba,  499-500;  second 
term,  507-508;  assassination  and 
character,  508 

Madison,  James,  member  of  Con 
stitutional  Convention,  198; 
elected  President,  253,  254;  re- 
elected,  260 

Magellan,  Ferdinando,  19,  26 

Magellan  Straits,  32 

Maine,  battleship,  499,  506 

Maine,  colony,  63,  67 

Manassas  Junction,  see  Bull  Run 

Manila,  battle  of,  500,  506 

Mann,  Horace,  303 

Manufactures,  centre  of,  508 

Marbury  vs.  Madison,  243 

Marco  Polo.  6,  10,  15 

Marion,  General  Francis,  176 

Marquette,  Father,  108-110 

Marshall,  John,  243 

Maryland,  colony,  46-48,  49,  65 

Mason,  James  M.,  381 

Mason,  John,  63 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  55-58, 
60,  66-67,  88-89 

Maximilian,  Archduke,  437 

Mayflower,  51,  66;  Compact,  51 

Meade,  General  George,  393 

Menendez,  Pedro,  30 

Mercantile  system,  142,  143 

Mercator,  map  by,  13 

Merchant  marine,  442 

Merrimac,  gunboat,  384-385,  397 

Mexico,  exploration  of,  18;  natives 
of,  20;  physical  geography,  20; 
Spanish  in,  23.  25;  city  of,  26; 
declaration  of  war  against,  330; 
French  in,  437 

Middle  colonies,  in  1690,  indus 
tries,  97-98 

Mint,  establishment  of,  222 

Minuit,  Peter,  69-70 

Missionary  Ridge,  battle,  399 

Mississippi,  under  carpet-bag  gov 
ernment,  431 

Mississippi  River,  discovery  of,  22 
and  note;  exploration  of,  108, 
110 

Missouri  Compromise,  281-283 

Mitchell,  John,  519 

Mobile,  capture  of,  406 

Monitor,  385,  397 

Monmouth,  battle  of,  170 


Monroe  Doctrine,  origin,  287-288; 

interpretation,   289;   in   Mexico, 

436-437 ;  in  Venezuelan  question, 

487,  496;    the  new,  513 
Monroe,     James,     recalled     from 

France,   233;  elected  President, 

285;  reflected    286 
Montezuma,  20 
Monts,  Sieur  de,  104,  105 
Moors  in  Spain,  30 
Mormons,  304,  494,  496 
Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  324 
Morton,  Oliver  P.,  446 
Mugwumps,  464,  465,  469 
Murfreesboro,  battle  of,  384  (note) 
Muscovy  Company,  38 
Muskhogean  Indians,  98 

NANTES,  EDICT  OF,  76,  104 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  duplicity  of, 
254,  255 

Napoleon  III,  401,  437 

Narvaez,  Pamphilo  de,  21 

Nashville,  408 

Nassau,  Fort,  69 

National  Banks,  399-400 

Nationalism  defined,  285;  Supreme 
Court  and,  286 

Natural  resources,  523 

Naval  cruise  (1907-1909),  523 

Navigation  Acts,  73,  78,  85,  87,  89; 
*  enforcement  of,  143;  of  1733,  150; 
of  1750,  150 

Navy  in  Spanish  War,  507 

Nebraska  bill,  346 

Negro  disfranchisement,  449 

Negro,  in  recent  times,  520 

Negro  suffrage,  426-427 

Neutrality,  Proclamation  of  1793, 
226 

Neutrals,  rules  governing,  401-402 

Nevada,  Territory,  373 

New  Albion,  32 

New  Amsterdam,  70 

New  England  colonies,  early,  Chap 
ter  V;  after  Restoration,  88-89; 
in  1690,  92-94 

New  England  Confederation,  64,  67 

Newfoundland,  27,  28,  38,  46  and 
note 

New  Hampshire,  colony,  63,  67 

New  Haven,  colony,  62-63;  ab 
sorbed  by  Connecticut,  64 

New  Jersey,  colony,  74,  89 

New  Jersey  Plan,  199-200 

New  Netherland,  69-74;  seized  by 
England,  73;  settlement,  69-70; 
government,  71,  83 


Index 


561 


New  Orleans,  battle  of,  266,  267; 

capture  in  1862.  384 
New  Sweden,  71 
New  York  City,  97 
New  York,  colony,  69,  89-90 
Nicolet,  Jean,  108 
Non-Intercourse  Act,  1809,  253 
Norse  discoveries,  15 
North  Carolina,  75-79,  83 
North,  Lord,  151 
Northern  Securities  Co.,  518 
Northmen,  1-2,  15 
Northwest  Ordinance,  188-189 
Northwest  Passage,  32 
Nullification,    Jackson    and,    307- 


OCCUPATIONS,  in  1790,  209 

Oglethorpe,  George,  139 

Ohio  Company,  120 

Ohio  Company  of  Associates,  188- 

190 
Oklahoma,   Territory,   474;  State, 

521 

Olney,  Richard,  486,  495 
Omnibus  bill,  337 
"Open  door"  policy,  512-513 
Orange,  Fort,  69 
Ordinance  of   1784,   188;  of  1787, 

188,   189 

Oregon,  32;  question  of,  327,  328 
Oregon,  battleship,  515 
Ostend  Manifesto,  351 
Otis,  James,  144,  146 
Owen,  Robert,  304 

PACIFIC  OCEAN,  17,  19,  32 
Pacific  railroads,  389,  449 
Palatinate,  German,  76 
Palma,  President  of  Cuba,  504 
Palmer,  John  M.,  483 
Panama,  11,  17,  32 
Panama  Canal,  514-516,  526 
Panama  Republic,  516 
Pan-American  Congress,   470-471, 

476 

Pan-American  Exposition,  508,  525 
Panic  of  1837,  313,   314;   of   1857, 

357,  358;  of  1873,  449 
Paper  money,  387-388 
Paris,   treaty  of,   1763,    124,    125; 

treaty  of,  1783,  179,  180;  treaty 

of,  1898,  502 
Parish,  English,  58 
Parker,  Alton  B.,  510 
Parkman,  Francis,  358 
Parliament,  English,  54,  55 
Parole,  Confederate,  417 


Parsons,  Samuel,  188 

Parties,  political,  rise  of,  222-223 

Patrons  of  Husbandry,  455 

Patroon  system,  70 

Peace  Conference,  1861,  373;  1899, 
512 

Pemberton,  General  John  C.,  395 

Peninsular  Campaign,  385-386,  397 

Penn,  Admiral,  79-80 

Penn,  William,  in  W.  Jersey,  79; 
grant  of  land,  80;  government  by, 
81,  82;  references,  83,  84 

Pennsylvania,  colony,  79-83;  gov 
ernment,  81-82;  references,  83, 
84 

Pension  laws,  469 

People's  Party,  see  Populist  Party 

Perry,  Oliver  H.,  victory,  265 

Personal  liberty  laws,  339,  340 

Peru,  18,  23,  25,  32 

Petersburg,  Va.,  403,  410 

Petition,  right  of,  317 

Petroleum,  451 

Philadelphia,  81,  97 

Philip  II,  King  of  Spain,  30,  34 

Philippines,  discovery,  19;  attack 
upon,  by  Dewey,  500;  acquired 
by  United  States,  502;  revolt  in, 
502;  pacification  of,  503;  gov 
ernment  of,  506,  510,  512;  ques 
tion  of  independence,  508 

Phillips,  Wendell,  422 

Physical  geography,  influence  of, 
1,  23,  45,  46,  75,  92,  95,  118-119, 
120,  379-380,  398 

Pierce,  Franklin,  President,  340- 
341 

Pike,  Zebulon,  248 

Pilgrims,  50-53,  66 

Pinckney,  Charles  C.,  minister  to 
France,  233 

Pinckney  Plan,  200 

Pineda,  Alonzo  de,  19,  26 

Pitt,  William,  his  American  policy, 
124 

Pizarro,  Francisco  and  Gonzalo, 
22,  26 

Plantation  system,  in  Virginia,  42, 
43 

Plantations,  96 

Pliny,  3 

Plymouth  Colony,  51-53,  89;  ref 
erences,  66 

Plymouth  Company,  38-39,  40 

Pocahontas,  48-49 

Politics,  reform  of,  522 

Polk,  James  K.,  President,  323 

Ponce  de  Leon,  18 


562 


Index 


Poor  whites,  341 

Pope,  General  John,  389 

Popular  sovereignty,  333,  346 

Population,  center  of,  508 

Population  of  United  States,  in 
1790,  207 

Populist  Party,  478-479,  482 

Porter,  Captain  David,  264 

Porto  Rico,  17,  30  (note);  posses 
sion  of  United  States,  500;  gov 
ernment,  503 

Port  Royal,  Acadia,  105 

Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  Huguenot  settle 
ment,  29 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  treaty  of  1905, 
512 

Portugal,  absorbed  by  Spain,  68 

Portuguese  navigators,  7-8,  9; 
voyages,  12,  19;  trade  with  the 
East,  32 

Prescott,  William  H.,  358 

"  President "  and  "  Little  Belt,"  256 

Presidential  Succession"  Act,  466 

Primary  elections,  522 

Princeton,  battle  of,  164 

Privateering,  in  sixteenth  century, 
132;  in  Revolution,  164 

Privateers,  American,  1812,  266 

Prohibition  laws,  522,  526 

Proportional  representation,  in 
Constitutional  Convention,  201 

Ptolemy,  Claudius,  3 

Pueblo,  20,  26 

Pulaski,  176 

Pullman  strike,  see  Chicago  strike 

Pure  food  laws,  521 

Puritans  in  England,  53,  56;  Massa 
chusetts  Bay  Colony,  56;  church 
of,  58,  74,  75 

Putnam,  Rufus,  188,  190 

QUAKERS,  59  (note),  74,  79-80,  88, 

93 

Quebec  Act,  152 
Quebec,  founded,  105 

RADISSON,  SIEUR,  108 
Railroads,    building    begun,    300; 
transportation,     354;    construc 
tion,  444;  abuses,  455;  restriction 
laws,  456;  unification  of,  518,  523 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  33-34,  36 
Randolph,   Edmund,  in  Constitu 
tional  Convention,  199;  Attorney 
General,  217 

Reciprocity,  470;  treaties,  494 
"  Reconcentration"  policy  in  Cuba, 
499 


Reconstruction,  Chapter  XXV; 
committee  on,  423;  act  of,  1867, 
425-426;  references,  434-435 

Reformation  in  England,  31,  53 

Refunding,  442-443 

Religion,  in  colonies,  102;  in  New 
England,  93;  Southern  colonies, 
96-97;  middle  colonies,  98 

Religious  activities,  1830,  304 

Removal  of  deposits,  310,  311 

Renaissance,  431 

Representation,  American,  in  Par 
liament,  147 

Representative  government,  in  Vir 
ginia,  45;  in  Plymouth  Colony, 
53;  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  57;  in 
Connecticut,  62;  in  Carolinas,  78 

Representatives,  numbers  of,  201 

Republican  party,  organized,  351- 
352 

Republicans,  National,  295 

Resaca,  battle  of,  405 

Restoration,  in  England,  63,  73, 
74,  85 

Resumption  of  specie  payments, 
443-444,  445,  457 

Retaliatory  Acts,  152 

Revolution,  American,  finances  of, 
165,  173,  174,  175;  and  France, 
165;  weakness  of  Congress,  168; 
difficulties  with  army,  164;  on 
the  ocean,  176;  treaty  at  close,  179 

Revolution,  English,  of  1688,  90 

Rhode  Island  Colony,  59-60,  88, 
89;  references,  67 

Richelieu,  Cardinal,  107 

Richmond,  410 

Roanoke  Island,  34 

Robertson,  James,  170 

Roberval,  Sieur  de,  29 

Rochambeau,  General,  178 

Rockefeller,  John  D.,  473,  518 

Roman  Catholics,  in  Maryland,  48, 
49;  in  England,  53 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  civil  service 
commissioner,  495;  in  Spanish 
war,  501,  507;  Vice-President, 
507;  succession  to  Presidency, 
508;  character,  509;  President, 
512,  513,  518,  521,  524 

Rosecrans,  General  William  S.,  384 
(note),  398 

Routes  to  the  West,  273 

Rule  of  1756,  227-228 

Russell,  Earl,  402 

Russia,  mediator  in  1814,  267;  at 
titude  during  Civil  War,  437 ;  war 
with  Japan,  512 


Index 


563 


SAGAS,  NORSE,  2 

St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  30 

St.  Clair,  General  Arthur,  190,  230 

St.  Louis  Exposition,  525 

St.  Louis,  Fort,  116 

St.  Mary's,  Md.,  46 

Samoan  Islands,  504 

Sampson,  Admiral  William  T.,  500 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  500 

Saratoga,  battle  of,  167;  effects,  168 

Savannah,  Sherman  at,  407-408 

Scalawags,  426 

Schley,  Admiral  Winfield  S.,  500 

Schools,  in  West,  280 

Schurz,  Carl,  463 

Schuyler,  General  Philip,  167 

Scientific  societies  established,  212 

Scotch-Irish,  129 

Scott,  General  Winfield,  265;  war 
with  Mexico,  331,  332;  Presiden 
tial  candidate,  341 

Seal  fisheries,  488 

Secession,  368;  arguments  for,  370- 
372 

Seigneurs,  in  French  colonies,  107 

Self-government,  in  eighteenth  cen 
tury,  138 

Seminole  Indians,  war  with,  287 

Separatists,  in  England,  54 

Seven  Years'  War,  124 

Sevier,  John,  170 

Sewall,  Arthur,  483 

Seward  William  H.,  337;  "irre 
pressible  conflict,"  363,  374,  381, 
436 

Seymour,  Horatio,  430 

Shadrach,  case  of,  339 

Shafter,  General  William  R.,  501 

Shaftesbury,  Earl  of,  75,  77 

Sharpsburg,  see  Antietam 

Shays's  rebellion,  194 

Sherman,  James  S.,  524 

Sherman,  John,  457,  460 

Sherman  anti-trust  law,  472-473 

Sherman  silver  coinage  act  (1890), 
472,  480-482 

Sherman,  General  William  T.,  394, 
398,  404-405,  408-409 

Shenandoah  Valley,  379 

Sheridan,  General  Philip,  407,  413 

Shiloh,  battle  of,  383 

Siemens-Martin  process,  451 

Sigel,  General  Franz,  403 

Silver  issue,  507 

Silver  legislation,   457-459 

Simms,  William  Gilmore,  358 

Single  standard  argument,  484,  495 

Sioux  Indians,  108,  111 


Slater,  Samuel,  238,  239 

Slavery,  negro,  25;  influence  on 
South,  342-343,  390,  412;  aboli 
tion  of,  410,  411  (note) 

Slaves,  in  Virginia,  43;  importa 
tion  prior  to  1808,  202;  number 
of,  1850,  341;  fugitive,  390 

Slave  trade,  African,  32,  131 

Slidell,  John,  381 

Smith,  John,  41-42,  48,  69  (note) 

Solid  South,  460 

Soto,  Hernando  de,  22 

South,  in  1690,  94;  physical  influ 
ences  in,  95;  industrial  life,  95; 
society,  95-96;  local  govern 
ment,  96;  education,  97;  indus 
trial  advance,  520,  526 

South  America,  10,  17 

South  American  revolutions,  287; 
republics,  513 

South  Carolina,  colony,  76-79,  83; 
secession,  368,  370-371 

Southern  colonies,  life  in,  1690,  94- 
97 

South  Sea,  17 

Spain,  explorations  and  settle 
ment,  17-19;  conquests,  20-23; 
relation  with  Indians,  20-25; 
colonial  policy,  23-25,  497;  ri 
valry  with  England,  32;  com 
mercial  poilcy,  24;  government 
of,  23;  Council  for  Indies,  23; 
India  House  (Casa  de  Contrata- 
cion),  23;  wars  against  Dutch, 
68;  relations  with  United  States 
in  1785,  192;  treaty  with,  1795, 
229 

Spanish  war,  506,  510 

Specie  circular,  312 

Spotswood,  Governor,  119 

Spottsylvania,  battle  of,  403 

Stamp  Act,  passed,  145;  opposition 
to,  146;  Congress,  146;  repeal, 
147 

Standard  Oil  Company,  473,  518 

"Standpatters,"  524 

Stanton,  Edwin,  Secretary  of  War, 
428 

Star  of  the  West,  372 

Starved  Rock,  110 

State  sovereignty  in  Georgia,  292 

Steamboat,  invention  of,  249;  in 
fluence  on  growth  of  West,  275, 
276 

Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  272-273 

Steuben,  Baron,  168 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  422,  428 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  340 


564 


Index 


Strabo,  3 
Strikes,  454-455 
Stuart,  Gilbert,  212,  213 
Stuyvesant,   Peter,   Governor,   71, 

73,  83 

Suffrage,  recent  legislation,  521 
Sumner,  Charles,  347;  attack  on, 

350;  reconstruction  policy,  422, 

435 
Sumter,      Fort,      371,     372,     374, 

396 

Sumter,  General  Thos.,  176 
Surplus   revenue,   distribution   of, 

312 

Survey  of  western  land,  188 
Swedes,   colonization,   71,    74,   81, 

82 

Swiss,  in  colonies,  76 
Symmes,  John  Cleves,  190-191 

\ 

TAFT,  WILLIAM  H.,  IN  PHILIPPINES, 
503;  in  Cuba,  504;  elected  Presi 
dent,  524-525 

Talon,  107 

Taney,  Roger  B.,  Secretary  of 
Treasury,  310;  360 

Tariff,  the  first,  215-216;  of  1816, 
271;  of  1824,  289;  of  1828,  293; 
of  1832,  307;  of  1833,  308;  of 
1846,  328;  of  1857,  357;  of  1861, 
387-389;  of  Civil  War,  400-401, 
440-441;  commission  of  1883, 
467-468;  as  a  political  issue,  467- 
469;  McKinley  Act,  470;  of  1894, 
493-496;  of  1897,  494;  revision 
of,  510 

Taxes,  Civil  War,  442 

Taylor,  General  Zachary,  in  Mexi 
can  War,  329-331;  elected  Presi 
dent,  334 

Tea,  controversy  over,  151-152 

Tecumseh,  257;  death  of,  265 

Telephone,  491-492 

Temperance  reform,  305 

Tennessee,  settled,  171;  admitted, 
238;  reconstruction,  418,  425 

Tenure  of  office  act,  427-428 

Texas,  independent,  322;  admitted, 
324 

Thirty  Years'  War,  71 

Thomas,  General  George  H.,  398 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  446 

Tippecanoe,  battle  of,  257 

Tobacco,  in  Virginia,  42,  45,  48; 
in  Maryland,  47;  price  of,  86 

Toleration  Act,  in  Maryland,  65 

Tonty,  Henri  de,  111 

Topeka  Constitution,  339,  350 


Toscanelli,  9 

Town,  in  New  England,  58 

Townshend,  Charles,  148 

Trade  Unions,  519 

Trading  companies,  37,  38 

Transylvania,  171 

Treaty  of  Berlin,  1889,  504 

Trent  affair,  381,  397 

Trenton,  victory  at,  164 

Trusts,  472-473,  475,  510,  517 

Turks,  6 

Tuskegee  Institute,  520 

Tweed  ring,  446 

Tyler,  John,  President,  320,  373 

UNCLE  TOM'S  CABIN,  340 
Underground  Railroad,  340 
Union  Republican  Party,  405 
United  Mine  Workers,  519 
United  States  a  world  power,  510- 

511 
United  States  notes,  388,  443-444, 

449,  450,  457,  481 
United   States   Steel   Corporation, 

517,  525 
Utah,  494 

VACA,  CABECA  DE,  21,  26 

Vail,  Alfred,  324 

Valley  Forge,  suffering  at,  168 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  Secretary  of 
State,  306;  elected  President, 
312-313 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  360 

Venezuelan  question,  486-487,  495- 
496 

Vermont,  admitted,  238 

Verrazano,  Giovanni  da,  29,  36 

Vespucius,  Americus,  12-14 

Vicksburg,  383,  campaign  of,  394- 
395,  397 

Vikings,  2;  ship  of,  15 

Vinland,  2 

Virginia,  named,  34;  colony,  38-45; 
government  of,  41-42;  slavery 
in,  43;  land  system,  43;  repre 
sentative  government,  44;  colony 
during  Commonwealth,  64;  after 
Restoration,  86-87 

Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolu 
tions,  235 

Virginia  Plan,  199,  200 

Vote,  right  to,  213 

WALDSEEMULLER,  14 

War    of    1812,    declaration,    260; 

plans  for,  261 
Washington,  Booker  T.,  520 


Index 


565 


Washington,  George,  at  Fort  Ne 
cessity,  121;  and  Boston  Port 
Bill,  152;  commander-in-chief, 
155;  campaign  about  New  York, 
162;  retreat  through  New  Jersey, 
162,  163;  President  of  Constitu 
tional  Convention,  198;  inaugur 
ated  President,  215;  reelected, 
224;  Farewell  address,  231 

Washington  City,  capture  of,  1814, 
266 

Washington,  Treaty  of  1871,  438- 
439 

Wasp  vs.  Frolic,  263,  264 

Watson,  Thomas,  483 

Wayne,  General  Anthony,  230 

Weaver,  James  B.f  479 

Webster,  Daniel,  Secretary  of 
State,  320;  seventh  of  March 
speech,  337;  Ashburton  treaty, 
320,  321;  debate  with  Hayne, 
306,  307 

Welles,  Gideon,  374 

Welsh,  in  colonies,  82 

Wesley,  Charles  and  John,  100 

West,  Benjamin,  212 

West,  the,  growth  of  in  1812,  279; 
character  of  life  in,  280;  growth 
of,  353,  354,  455;  the  Far,  521 

Western  settlement,  earliest  be 
yond  Alleghany  Mountains,  170, 
171;  in  1784,  186,  188 

Western  settlers,  character  of,  173 

West  Virginia,  admission  of,  380 

Westward  migration,  in  New  Eng 


land,  61;  in  Virginia,  40;  influ 
ence  of  physical  geography,  118, 
119,  120;  in  New  York,  119;  in 
Pennsylvania,    120;   from   Caro- 
linas,  170;  routes,  171,  172,  173; 
in  1787,  190;  after  1815,  276-281; 
prior  to  1812,  273 
Wheeler,  General  Joseph,  502 
Whig  Party,  origin,  311;  downfall. 

341 

Whigs,  "Conscience,"  337 
Whiskey  Insurrection,  231 
White,  Father  Andrew,  49 
White,  John,  34 
Whitney,  Eli,  239 
Wilderness,  battles  of,  403 
Wilkes,  Captain  Charles,  381 
William  III  and  Mary,  90 
William,  King,  war,  113 
Williams,  Roger,  58-60,  67,  88 
Wilmot  Proviso,  332 
Wilson,  tariff  bill,  493,  496 
Winchester,  battle  of,  407 
Wingfield,  Edward  M.,  41,  49 
Winnebago  Indians,  108 
Winthrop,  John,  88 
Witchcraft,  94 
Wood,  Colonel  Leonard,  501 
World's  Fair,  Chicago,  488 
Writs  of  Assistance,  disputes  over, 

143 

X.  Y.  Z.  AFFAIR,  233,  234 
York,  Duke  of,  73,  74,  80,  89-90 
Yorktown,  surrender  of,  178,  179 
Yucatan,  18 


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American  history. 


UNIVERSITY^OJRCALIFORNIA 


